The Badami Chalukyas (543 CE- 753 CE) ruled modern Telangana from 611 CE -753 CE after defeating Vishnukundin Dynasty in 611 CE, emerged as a formidable power in the western Deccan, establishing an empire that laid the foundation for future kingdoms in the region. Their history is deeply intertwined with the Telangana plateau, which served as a crucial eastern frontier, a battleground for supremacy, and a source of powerful subordinate rulers. Their conquests and administration integrated Telangana firmly into the Deccan's political and cultural landscape.
Founder: Pulakeshin I
Capitals: Badami (Vatapi)
Core Region: Karnataka (Modern)
Geographical Extent: At its peak under Pulakeshin II, the empire stretched from Kavery river in the south to the Narmada river in the north. It encompassed most of modern Karnataka, Maharashtra, Telangana, and coastal Andhra Pradesh.
Languages: Sanskrit, Kannada
Religion: Hinduism (Shaivism & Vaishnavism), Jainism
Predecessors: Kadamba Dynasty, Banas, Vishnukundins (in Telangana/Andhra)
Successors: Rashtrakuta Dynasty
Notable Rulers: Pulakeshin II (most powerful), Vikramaditya I (restorer), Vikramaditya II (conqueror of Kanchi)
Key Historical Significance
Architectural Style: Pioneered the Vesara or Chalukyan style of architecture, a sublime synthesis of Nagara (North Indian) and Dravida (South Indian) styles.
Major Sites: The cave temples of Badami, the experimental temples at Aihole (cradle of Indian temple architecture), and the monumental temples at Pattadakal (a UNESCO World Heritage Site).
Military Achievements: Pulakeshin II's historic victory over Harshavardhana on the banks of the Narmada river, halting the southward expansion of the Pushyabhuti (Vardhana) Empire.
Administration: A highly decentralized system relying on a network of loyal feudatory families (e.g., Alupas, Gangas, Vemulawada Chalukyas) to manage vast territories.
Coinage: Among the first South Indian dynasties to issue gold coins, called Varahas, bearing the dynastic emblem of the Boar (Varaha).
Chronology of Key Events
c. 543 CE: Pulakeshin I establishes the dynasty, declares independence from the Kadambas, and founds the capital at Vatapi (Badami).
611 CE: Pulakeshin II defeats the Vishnukundins, bringing Telangana and coastal Andhra under Chalukya control.
c. 618-634 CE: Pulakeshin II defeats Harshavardhana and extends the empire to its zenith.
642 CE: Pallava king Narasimhavarman I captures and plunders Badami, likely killing Pulakeshin II.
655 CE: Vikramaditya I reclaims Badami from the Pallavas, restoring the dynasty.
733-744 CE: Vikramaditya II invades and captures the Pallava capital Kanchipuram thrice, avenging previous defeats.
753 CE: The last king, Kirtivarman II, is defeated by the Rashtrakuta chief Dantidurga (a former feudatory), ending the dynasty.
The key to their entry into Telangana was the defeat of the Vishnukundin dynasty, which was the dominant power in the eastern Deccan, ruling from their capital at Vengi (and later other centers) over parts of Telangana and coastal Andhra. Pulakeshin II (611 CE) decisively defeated the Vishnukundins, breaking their power and incorporating their territories into the growing Chalukya empire. This victory was a pivotal moment, opening the gates of Telangana to Chalukyan influence and control.
Founder of the Empire: Proclaimed independence from the Kadambas and established the Chalukya dynasty.
Capital: Founded the fortress capital at Vatapi (Modern Badami), a strategically brilliant location surrounded by rugged hills.
Legitimization: Performed major Vedic sacrifices like the Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) and Hiranyagarbha (golden womb) to declare his sovereign status and legitimize his rule, as recorded in the Badami Cliff Inscription of 543 CE.
Scope: His rule was largely confined to the immediate areas around Badami, laying the foundation for future expansion.
Achievements:The Consolidator: Expanded the kingdom significantly from its core.
Conquests: Subdued the Kadambas of Banavasi (the former overlords), the Alupas of South Canara, the Nalas of Nalavadi, and the Mauryas of the Konkan coast.
Strategic Gain: Annexed the important port of Goa (Revatidvipa), granting the Chalukyas access to maritime trade.
Secured the West: His campaigns secured the western and southern flanks of the nascent empire.
Regent and Usurper: Ruled as regent for his young nephew, Pulakeshin II, but later attempted to pass the throne to his own son, Sundaravarma.
Military Campaigns: A capable ruler who continued expansion. He invaded the Kalachuri kingdom (in Gujarat and Malwa) and subdued the Gangas, Pallavas, and Alupas, as recorded in the Mahakuta Pillar inscription of 595 CE.
Patronage: Commissioned the excavation of the Badami Cave Temple No. 3.
Downfall: His attempt to usurp the throne led to a civil war with Pulakeshin II, in which Mangalesha was defeated and killed at the battle of Elapattu-Simbige in c. 610 CE. His reign was subsequently erased from many official genealogies.
The Empire Builder: The greatest Chalukya emperor who expanded the empire to its zenith, from the Narmada River in the north to the Kaveri River in the south.
Conquest of Telangana: His most critical campaign for the region was the decisive defeat of the Vishnukundins in 611 CE (as per the Kopparam Plates), incorporating their territories in Telangana and coastal Andhra into the empire.
Hyderabad Incident: The conquest likely involved capturing strategic forts in the region, such as those near Bhongir or Golconda, securing central Telangana.
Defeat of Harsha: His most famous victory was halting the southward march of the powerful North Indian emperor Harshavardhana on the banks of the Narmada River (c. 618-620 CE).
Other Conquests: Defeated the Pallavas (initially), the Gangas, the Cholas, and the Cheras. Received homage from the King of Persia (Parasika), as mentioned in inscriptions.
Coinage: Issued gold coins (Varahas) featuring the boar emblem, signifying economic prosperity.
Final Defeat: His reign ended in tragedy when the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I avenged his earlier defeat, captured, and plundered Vatapi (Badami) in 642 CE, likely killing Pulakeshin II.
The Restorer: Son of Pulakeshin II, he spent his early life in exile. He recovered the kingdom from a 13-year Pallava occupation and internal feuds among his brothers.
Reconquest of Telangana: His Amidelpadu inscription (660 CE), issued near Alampur, declares he overthrew the enemies (the Pallavas) and restored the lost fortunes of his father, reclaiming control over Telangana and the core empire.
Continued Pallava Wars: Fought successful campaigns against the Pallava kings Mahendravarman II and Paramesvaravarman I.
Patronage: Showed a strong inclination towards Shaivism.
Peace and Prosperity: His reign was marked by stability and consolidation.
Military Prowess: inscriptions claim he received tribute from distant lands, including Parasika (Persia), though this likely refers to Arab traders or Sassanian remnants.
Telangana Connection: The Banagal Copper Plates (682 CE), issued from his military camp, describe his genealogy and rule, confirming Chalukya authority over the region.
Religion: Continued the policy of patronizing multiple faiths.
Temple Construction: Commissioned the building of numerous temples across the empire.
Telangana Inscriptions: The Alampur inscriptions (704, 713 CE) from his reign detail grants and construction activities, highlighting continued investment in the religious centers of Telangana.
Avenger of Vatapi: He achieved a definitive victory over the Pallavas, avenging the past humiliation.
Conqueror of Kanchi: Captured the Pallava capital Kanchipuram on three occasions (as a prince, emperor, and through his son), but notably did not destroy the city, instead making generous grants to its temples, as recorded in the Virupaksha Temple inscription.
Patron of Pattadakal: His queens, Lokamahadevi and Trilokadevi, built the magnificent Virupaksha Temple and Mallikarjuna Temple at Pattadakal to commemorate his victories. These are now UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Relations with Telangana: His successful reign ensured continued Chalukya dominance over Telangana.
Rebellions: Suffered a defeat against the Pandya king Maravarman Rajasimha I at the Battle of Venbai.
Rise of the Rashtrakutas: The dynasty's final blow came from its own feudatory, Dantidurga of the Rashtrakutas.
Betrayal in Telangana: Yudhamalla I of the Vemulawada Chalukyas, another key feudatory in Telangana, allied with Dantidurga.
Downfall: This coalition overthrew and defeated Kirtivarman II in 753 CE, ending the Badami Chalukya dynasty and establishing the Rashtrakuta Empire.
The Council of Ministers: Included key figures like:
Prime Minister (Pradhana)
Commander-in-Chief (Dandanayaka)
Chief Treasurer (Bhandagarika)
Chief Secretary (Srikaranadhikrita)
Heir Apparent (Yuvaraja): The crown prince was often given governing experience by being placed in charge of a important province.
Major Provinces (Rashtras or Mandalas): The empire was divided into several large provinces called Rashtras (e.g., Karnataka Rashtra, Gujarat Rashtra, Telangana Rashtra). Each Rashtra was governed by a Rashtrapati, a high-ranking official often appointed directly by the emperor from the central bureaucracy.
Divisions (Vishayas): Each Rashtra was subdivided into Vishayas (districts). A Vishayapati governed each district.
Local Units (Bhuktis): Vishayas were further divided into Bhuktis (sub-divisions) consisting of groups of villages.
Village Assembly (Sabha or Mahajana): The village was administered by a local assembly of elders.
Village Officials: The assembly was assisted by various functionaries:
Grama Pati: Village headman.
Karnam: Accountant.
Talara: Watchman.
Senabova: Courier.
This system ensured a high degree of local self-sufficiency and remained largely unaffected by changes in higher political authority.
1. Feudatory Clans (Samantas):
The Chalukyas did not impose direct rule from Badami. Instead, they relied on loyal feudatory clanswho acknowledged Chalukya overlordship.
Examples in Telangana:
The Vemulawada Chalukyas: The most prominent feudatories, they governed large parts of northern Telangana from their capital at Vemulawada.
The Mudigonda Chalukyas/Cholas: Governed the eastern Telangana region (modern Khammam district).
Local Naga Chiefs: Indigenous tribal chiefs were incorporated into the hierarchy to administer their own territories.
2. Obligations of Feudatories:
Tribute (Kara): Paid annual tribute to the imperial treasury in Badami.
Military Service: Were obligated to provide troops and support to the emperor during wars. The Telangana region, with its rich iron ore, was a crucial source of weaponry and soldiers.
Loyalty: Had to demonstrate loyalty by regularly visiting the imperial court and supporting the emperor's authority.
3. Imperial Oversight:
While autonomous, feudatories were not independent. The central government maintained control through:
Appointed Officials (Ayuktas): Imperial commissioners were stationed in strategic centers like Alampur and Bodhan to oversee revenue collection, maintain law and order, and ensure the feudatories' loyalty.
Royal Grants: The emperor retained the right to issue land grants (as seen in the Alampur inscriptions), bypassing the feudatory if needed, which reinforced central authority.
4. Strategic Centers:
Key fortified towns like Alampur (religious and strategic river confluence), Vemulawada (feudatory capital), and Bodhan served as crucial nodes for military control, trade, and administration, ensuring the empire's presence was felt.
While the Vemulawada Chalukyas were the most prominent feudatory family in Telangana, the Badami Chalukyas governed the region through a network of diverse subordinate rulers (samantas). This layered administrative system allowed them to manage the territory effectively without direct control from their distant capital in Badami. Key groups included:
Identity: Often termed "Cholas" in historical records, they were likely local Telugu chieftains who submitted to Chalukya authority. Their name suggests a blend of local identity and political alignment with the Chalukyas.
Role: Governed the eastern frontiers of Telangana, securing trade routes along the Godavari River and acting as a buffer zone against powers in Kalinga (Odisha) and coastal Andhra.
Identity: Indigenous tribal leaders who ruled small chiefdoms. They held deep-rooted influence over their territories and populations.
Role: The Chalukyas incorporated these chiefs into their feudal hierarchy. In exchange for acknowledging Chalukya suzerainty and providing local troops, the Naga chiefs retained autonomy over their lands. This strategy ensured stability and leveraged local knowledge.
Ayuktas: High-ranking commissioners or governors tasked with overseeing regions on behalf of the emperor. They were often stationed in strategic locations such as Alampur (Jogulamba District) and Bodhan (Nizamabad District).
Maharajulas: "Great kings" – a title granted to powerful feudatories or governors who exercised significant autonomy but remained subordinate to Badami. Their influence spanned key economic zones like the Krishna River basin (including parts of Mahbubnagar and Nalgonda).
Role: These officials, often drawn from the Chalukya core in Karnataka, implemented imperial policies, collected revenue, and maintained law and order. Their authority was derived directly from the emperor and was not necessarily hereditary.
Agriculture: The Foundation of Wealth
The empire's control over the fertile river basins of the Krishna, Godavari, Tungabhadra, Malaprabha, and Kaveri enabled highly productive agriculture. Primary crops included rice (in river deltas and coastal areas), millets (such as jowar and bajra), pulses, sugarcane, and cotton. The widespread practice of land grants (Agraharas) to Brahmins and temples, documented in numerous inscriptions, encouraged land clearance and cultivation. This not only expanded agricultural output but also integrated new regions into the empire's economic and cultural systems. The construction of irrigation tanks and canals supported stable farming and increased productivity.
Mineral Resources and Industries
Telangana's mineral-rich plateau, particularly areas like Karimnagar, Nirmal, and Adilabad, was a major source of high-grade iron ore. This resource was crucial for producing weaponry—swords, spears, armor, and arrows—for the powerful Chalukyan military. It also supplied tools for agriculture and construction. Additionally, high-quality Indian steel (Wootz steel) became a valuable export. The Krishna and Godavari river basins also yielded diamonds and other precious stones, adding to the region's wealth. Local industries flourished, including textile weaving (using locally grown cotton), pottery, metalworking, and sculpture, which supported extensive temple construction.
Trade: Routes and Hubs
Telangana’s strategic location made it a vital junction for trade:
It served as an east-west corridor, linking Arabian Sea ports (such as those in Konkan) with Bay of Bengal ports and the prosperous eastern kingdoms.
It also lay on the Dakshinapatha (Southern Road), the major north-south trade route connecting northern India with the peninsula.
Key commercial and religious centers in Telangana included Alampur (at the confluence of the Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers), Vemulawada (a political and trade hub), and ancient fortified towns like Bodhan and Elgandal.
Maritime Trade
Although the Chalukyan core was inland, their control over Konkan coast ports—including Goa (Revatidvipa), Chaul, and Gharapuri (Elephanta)—was vital. These ports facilitated exports of iron, steel, spices, textiles, and precious stones. Imports included horses (from Arabia and Central Asia, essential for cavalry), gold, silk, and luxury goods. The maritime network connected the empire to the Persian Gulf (referred to in inscriptions as "Parasika"), the Red Sea, and Southeast Asia, integrating the Chalukyas into Indian Ocean trade.
Telangana’s Economic Contribution
Agriculture: The Krishna and Godavari valleys produced surplus food grains and cotton.
Minerals: Iron ore and diamonds were Telangana’s most significant contributions, supplying military and export needs.
Trade: The region’s location enabled control over vital trade routes, generating revenue from tariffs and commerce.
Industry: Local production of tools, weapons, and textiles from regional resources supported economic self-sufficiency.
The annexation of Telangana under Pulakeshin II was not only a military achievement but also a major economic gain, providing essential raw materials, agricultural output, and command over trade networks that sustained Chalukyan prosperity and power.
6.1 Society in Telangana
The social fabric of Telangana was shaped by imperial policies from Badami and the practices of local feudatories.
Feudal Structure: Society was organized around a clear hierarchy. The emperor in Badami stood at the apex, followed by feudatory rulers (like the Vemulawada Chalukyas), local chiefs (nayakas), and then the various classes of farmers, artisans, and merchants. This structure integrated Telangana into a vast Deccan-wide political system.
Agrahara Settlements: The Chalukya practice of making land grants to Brahmins was implemented in Telangana. These grants, frequently recorded in inscriptions, led to the establishment of Agraharams (Brahmin settlements). These became nuclei of Vedic learning, Sanskrit culture, and local administration, profoundly shaping the social and economic landscape of Telangana villages.
Merchant Guilds: Powerful guilds like the Manigramam and Five Hundred Swamis of Aihole, well-documented in Karnataka, would have operated along the trade routes of Telangana. These guilds facilitated commerce, controlled trade, and often made donations to temples, significantly influencing the region's economic and cultural life.
Religious Coexistence: The Chalukyan model of supporting all faiths created a environment of religious coexistence. This meant Jain merchants, Shaiva priests, and Vaishnava saints all operated within the same social sphere, contributing to a diverse and syncretic society.
Religious Patronage and Syncretism:
Shaivism emerged as the dominant sect, receiving lavish royal endowments from both the Badami overlords and local feudatories. Centers like Alampur and Vemulawada became major Shaivite pilgrimage sites.
Vaishnavism also flourished, as evidenced by sculptural and inscriptional references across various sites.
Jainism enjoyed continued patronage, particularly from merchant guilds and local officials. Numerous loose sculptures of Tirthankaras and inscriptions point to active and prosperous Jain communities in the region.
The royal policy of supporting all faiths fostered a unique environment of religious coexistence in Telangana.
Linguistic Landscape:
Sanskrit remained the primary language for royal proclamations, eulogies (prashastis), and theological discourse, as seen in the polished inscriptions at Alampur.
Kannada, as the language of the imperial administration, was used in administrative orders and boundary descriptions, underscoring the region's integration into the empire.
Telugu existed as the primary spoken vernacular of the people. While the official sphere was dominated by Sanskrit and Kannada, this period saw the gradual development of early Telugu in the cultural background, laying the groundwork for its future literary efflorescence.
The Alampur School of Architecture:
Nava-Brahma Temples: This group of nine temples (e.g., Taraka Brahma, Swarga Brahma) is the pinnacle of Early Chalukyan art in Telangana.
Style Synthesis: They are a masterful blend of:
Nagara (North Indian): The curvilinear shikhara (superstructure).
Dravida (South Indian): The concept of a walled enclosure (prakara), gateway, and certain pillar designs.
Local Idioms: Unique decorative motifs and spatial layouts specific to the region.
Iconography: The temples feature exquisite carvings of deities from the Hindu pantheon (Durga, Surya, Narasimha), secular figures, and intricate narrative panels from the epics.
The Vemulawada School of Architecture:
Sri Rajarajeshwara Temple: Under the patronage of the Vemulawada Chalukya feudatories, this site grew into a major cultural and pilgrimage center.
Distinct Features: The architecture here developed its own characteristics, often with a strong emphasis on ornate pillar mandapas (halls) and elaborate sculptural decoration, influencing later Kalyani Chalukya temples in the region.
Summary: Telangana's Cultural Transformation
The Chalukya period was a defining era for Telangana. It was not merely a political annexation but a deep cultural integration into the Deccan world. Architecturally, it marked the birth of a distinct regional style. Religiously, it established major pilgrimage centers. The society that emerged was complex, multi-lingual, and multi-religious, characterized by royal patronage and the growth of urban temple centers.
The Strategic Goal: For Pulakeshin II, subduing the Vishnukundins was the essential first step to secure his eastern flank. Control over Telangana provided:
Resources: Access to the region's rich iron ore deposits, crucial for weaponry and wealth.
Strategic Depth: It created a buffer zone and prevented the Vishnukundins from allying with his other enemies, particularly the Pallavas.
Trade Routes: Command over the east-west trade corridors passing through the Telangana plateau.
The Outcome: The conflict was decisive. As recorded in the Kopparam Plates (611 CE), Pulakeshin II inflicted a crushing defeat on the Vishnukundin king, likely Manchana Bhattaraka. This victory effectively dismantled the Vishnukundin kingdom, incorporating Telangana and coastal Andhra into the Chalukya empire. This campaign demonstrated Pulakeshin II's strategic vision and transformed the Chalukyas into a pan-Deccan power.
The Stakes: For both empires, control of the eastern Deccan (including Telangana) was crucial. It offered access to the resources mentioned above and strategic positioning to launch attacks into the other's heartland.
The First Pallava Invasion (642 CE): Following his defeat of Pulakeshin II, the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I (c. 630–668 CE) launched a devastating counter-offensive. His armies marched north, capturing and sacking the Chalukya capital Vatapi (Badami). critically, this campaign would have involved seizing control of Telangana, severing the Chalukya empire in two and demonstrating the region's vulnerability.
Telangana under Pallava Occupation (c. 642–655 CE): For approximately 13 years, parts of the eastern Chalukya empire, including Telangana, likely fell under Pallava suzerainty. This period represents a major disruption in Chalukya control and administration in the region.
The Chalukya Reconquest: The task of liberating Telangana and the core territories fell to Vikramaditya I (655–680 CE). His Amidelpadu inscription (660 CE), issued near Alampur, explicitly states his goal was to "overthrow the enemies" who had caused the loss of his father's fortune. His successful campaigns expelled the Pallavas from Vatapi and re-established Chalukya authority over Telangana.
Ongoing Conflict: The struggle continued for generations. The eastern frontier with the Pallavas remained heavily fortified. Later kings like Vikramaditya II (733–744 CE) would launch campaigns from this base, famously attacking and capturing the Pallava capital Kanchipuram on three occasions, thereby finally avenging the earlier defeats.
Northern Frontiers: While the primary threats were from the east and south, the northern borders of Telangana faced pressure from smaller kingdoms like the Vakatakas (earlier) and later the Kalachuris, though these were secondary to the existential struggle with the Pallavas.
In summary, Telangana's role in Chalukya foreign policy was dual: it was both the prized reward for victory over the Vishnukundins and the vulnerable frontline in the epic, century-long struggle against the Pallavas. Its possession was a key indicator of Chalukyan power—its loss a sign of decline, and its recovery a symbol of imperial restoration.
Strategic Province: Telangana was transformed from a sovereign kingdom into a strategically vital eastern province of the Chalukya empire. Its resources and location made it essential for the empire's economic and military security, particularly as a buffer and launching pad against the Pallavas of Kanchi.
Lasting Impact: This model of delegating power to local Telugu-speaking chiefs proved incredibly durable. It became the standard administrative template for successive major Deccan empires, including the Rashtrakutas and the Kalyani Chalukyas, who continued to rule Telangana through similar feudatory structures for another 500 years.
Rise of Local Powers: This system allowed Telugu dynasties to gain experience in statecraft and military leadership. The Vemulawada Chalukyas are a prime example of a local family that grew in power and prestige under this system.
Enduring Centers: They established Alampur and Vemulawada as major religious and cultural capitals. The Nava-Brahma temples at Alampur and the growth of the Rajarajeshwara templecomplex at Vemulawada created pilgrimage hubs that continued to be developed and revered for centuries. This architectural foundation was directly built upon by later dynasties like the Kakatiyas, who are famed for their temples at Hanamkonda and Warangal.
Cultural Synthesis: The patronage of both Shaivism and Jainism created a syncretic religious environment. The establishment of Agrahara settlements (Brahmin villages) through land grants deepened the influence of Vedic and Sanskritic culture in the agrarian society of Telangana.
The Revolt of the Feudatories: Dantidurga, the Rashtrakuta chief, who was himself a Chalukya feudatory from Maharashtra, orchestrated the empire's overthrow. Crucially, he allied with Yudhamalla I of the Vemulawada Chalukyas—the very subordinates tasked with guarding the Chalukya interests in Telangana.
A Lasting Legacy: This betrayal demonstrates that Telangana was not a passive territory but a power center in its own right. The ambitions of its governors could directly influence the fate of the empire itself. The administrative model the Chalukyas created—relying on powerful feudatories—ultimately contained the seeds of their own destruction when central power waned.
In summary, the Badami Chalukyas legacy in Telangana is threefold:
Politically, they made it a core part of the Deccan political world.
Administratively, they instituted a feudal model that defined governance for centuries.
Culturally, they laid the foundational stones for the region's iconic temple architecture and syncretic traditions, setting the stage for the golden age of the Kakatiyas. Their rule was the crucial catalyst that set Telangana on its distinct historical path.
Telugu as the Living Vernacular
Despite the official use of Sanskrit for royal proclamations and religion and Kannada for imperial administration, Telugu remained the primary spoken language (deshabhasha) of the vast majority of the population in Telangana. Its daily use in homes, markets, and local communities ensured its continuity and strength as the language of the land, preserving its unique identity and cultural expressions throughout the period.
Early Literary Development
The Badami Chalukya era (6th-8th centuries) coincides with the very earliest, tentative beginnings of Telugu as a written literary language. However, this development was not centered in the Kannada-administered Telangana but was happening further east in the coastal Andhra region, under the rule of the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, a collateral branch of the Chalukya family.
The first identifiable Telugu words appear in inscriptions that are still largely in Prakrit or Sanskrit, such as the Erragudipadu inscription (mid-6th century).
The first truly Telugu inscriptions, like the Boppudi inscription (late 7th century), emerge in this eastern zone, indicating that the movement to adapt the Telugu language to written forms was gaining momentum, albeit outside the direct sphere of Badami.
The Seeds of Future Growth
The political integration of Telangana into the Chalukya Deccan empire, while administratively favoring other languages, inadvertently created conditions that would later benefit Telugu.
The stability and economic activity fostered by the Chalukyas supported the agrarian and trading communities that formed the core of Telugu society.
The patronage of temple culture, as seen at sites like Alampur and Vemulawada, provided a cultural nucleus around which local Telugu traditions could thrive and eventually seek literary expression.
The gradual adoption of Telugu features by local feudatory rulers, such as the Vemulawada Chalukyas in their later inscriptions, shows the undeniable pressure and influence of the local linguistic environment, even on Kannada-speaking elites.
In essence, the Badami period served as an incubator for the Telugu language in Telangana. While it had not yet broken through as an official language, its unwavering presence as the spoken tongue of the people preserved its vitality. The cultural and economic frameworks established during this era laid the essential groundwork for Telugu's spectacular literary flowering in the subsequent centuries under dynasties like the Kakatiyas, who would wholeheartedly adopt Telugu as a primary language of their court and culture.
How Dates Were Decided: The Saka Era and Astronomical Dating
The Saka Era: The primary calendar system used in Chalukya inscriptions is the Saka era, which begins in 78 AD. An inscription mentioning "Saka 500" refers to 500 years after 78 AD, i.e., 578 AD. This was the standard dating system across much of ancient India.
Regnal Years: Inscriptions are also dated to the regnal year of the current king (e.g., "in the 5th year of the reign of Vijayaditya").
Astronomical Verification: The most reliable method for precise dating comes from inscriptions that include astronomical details alongside the Saka year. References to the position of planets, lunar cycles, solar eclipses, or lunar eclipses allow modern astronomers to calculate the exact Julian or Gregorian calendar date.
Example: The Polamuru plates of the Vishnukundins are explicitly dated with a lunar eclipse, allowing historians to pin the date to 611 CE with absolute certainty.
Cross-Referencing: The chronology is verified by cross-referencing multiple inscriptions from different reigns and even different dynasties (e.g., Pallava, Vishnukundin) that mention the same event, such as a battle.
Key Dating Inscriptions for the Dynasty:
Badami Cliff Inscription of Pulakeshin I (543 AD): Dated Saka 465 (543 AD), it establishes the founding date of the Chalukya empire at Badami.
Mahakuta Pillar Inscription of Mangalesha (595 AD): Provides details of his reign and military victories.
Aihole Inscription of Pulakeshin II (634 AD): A poetic prashasti (eulogy) by his court poet Ravikirti. It is one of the most important sources for his reign, detailing his victories over Harsha, the Pallavas, and others.
Hyderabad Grant of Pulakeshin II (631 AD): Dated Saka 553, it confirms his victory over the Vishnukundins occurred before this date.
Kopparam Plates of Pulakeshin II (611 AD, 21 October): A crucial record that explicitly dates the defeat of the Vishnukundins to 611 CE.
Pattadakal Virupaksha Temple Inscription: Records Vikramaditya II's triple conquest of Kanchipuram and the construction of the temple by Queen Lokamahadevi.
Amidelpadu Inscription (660 AD):
King: Vikramaditya I
Location: Near Alampur, Mahabubnagar District.
Significance: Issued in the 5th regnal year. It declares that Vikramaditya I restored the royal fortune of his father (Pulakeshin II) by overthrowing his enemies (the Pallavas) and restoring properties to gods and Brahmins. It is a key record of the Chalukya reconquest of Telangana from the Pallavas.
Alampur Inscriptions (704 AD, 713 AD):
King: Vijayaditya
Location: Alampur, Jogulamba District.
Significance: These inscriptions, dated to the 8th and 18th regnal years of Vijayaditya, record the construction of temple complex walls (prakara) under the orders of the king. They are written in Sanskrit but use Kannada script, confirming the use of Kannada in administration. They are vital for understanding temple patronage and grants in the region.
Banagal Grant (or Copper Plates) of Vinayaditya (682 AD):
King: Vinayaditya
Location: Issued from the military camp at Banumgal (modern Banagal, Karnataka).
Significance: Dated Saka 604 (27th April, 682 AD), this inscription provides the genealogy of the Chalukya family and details Vinayaditya's reign. It confirms the continued Chalukya control and administrative activity in the region bordering Telangana.
Inscriptions of the Vemulawada Chalukyas:
Dynasty: Vemulawada Chalukyas (Feudatories)
Location: Vemulawada, Rajanna-Sircilla District.
Significance: Numerous inscriptions from this feudatory family, including the later Pattadakal inscription of Arikesari II written in Telugu, trace their lineage to the main Badami Chalukyas. They provide crucial evidence for how the empire was managed through local subordinates and show the gradual cultural and linguistic shift towards Telugu in the region.
The Rashtrakutas became the new overlords of Telangana.
The Vemulawada Chalukyas continued to rule as feudatories, now under the Rashtrakutas.
Later, the Kalyani Chalukyas (Western Chalukyas) would revive Chalukyan rule over the region in the 10th century.
Founder: Pulakeshin I
Capitals: Badami (Vatapi)
Core Region: Karnataka (Modern)
Geographical Extent: At its peak under Pulakeshin II, the empire stretched from Kavery river in the south to the Narmada river in the north. It encompassed most of modern Karnataka, Maharashtra, Telangana, and coastal Andhra Pradesh.
Languages: Sanskrit, Kannada
Religion: Hinduism (Shaivism & Vaishnavism), Jainism
Predecessors: Kadamba Dynasty, Banas, Vishnukundins (in Telangana/Andhra)
Successors: Rashtrakuta Dynasty
Notable Rulers: Pulakeshin II (most powerful), Vikramaditya I (restorer), Vikramaditya II (conqueror of Kanchi)
Key Historical Significance
Architectural Style: Pioneered the Vesara or Chalukyan style of architecture, a sublime synthesis of Nagara (North Indian) and Dravida (South Indian) styles.
Major Sites: The cave temples of Badami, the experimental temples at Aihole (cradle of Indian temple architecture), and the monumental temples at Pattadakal (a UNESCO World Heritage Site).
Military Achievements: Pulakeshin II's historic victory over Harshavardhana on the banks of the Narmada river, halting the southward expansion of the Pushyabhuti (Vardhana) Empire.
Administration: A highly decentralized system relying on a network of loyal feudatory families (e.g., Alupas, Gangas, Vemulawada Chalukyas) to manage vast territories.
Coinage: Among the first South Indian dynasties to issue gold coins, called Varahas, bearing the dynastic emblem of the Boar (Varaha).
Chronology of Key Events
c. 543 CE: Pulakeshin I establishes the dynasty, declares independence from the Kadambas, and founds the capital at Vatapi (Badami).
611 CE: Pulakeshin II defeats the Vishnukundins, bringing Telangana and coastal Andhra under Chalukya control.
c. 618-634 CE: Pulakeshin II defeats Harshavardhana and extends the empire to its zenith.
642 CE: Pallava king Narasimhavarman I captures and plunders Badami, likely killing Pulakeshin II.
655 CE: Vikramaditya I reclaims Badami from the Pallavas, restoring the dynasty.
733-744 CE: Vikramaditya II invades and captures the Pallava capital Kanchipuram thrice, avenging previous defeats.
753 CE: The last king, Kirtivarman II, is defeated by the Rashtrakuta chief Dantidurga (a former feudatory), ending the dynasty.
1. Origins and Rise
The Chalukyas rose to power from Badami (Vatapi) in modern Karnataka in 543 CE, asserting independence from the declining Kadamba kingdom. While Pulakeshin I established the kingdom, it was under his successors that they expanded eastwards into the Telangana region.The key to their entry into Telangana was the defeat of the Vishnukundin dynasty, which was the dominant power in the eastern Deccan, ruling from their capital at Vengi (and later other centers) over parts of Telangana and coastal Andhra. Pulakeshin II (611 CE) decisively defeated the Vishnukundins, breaking their power and incorporating their territories into the growing Chalukya empire. This victory was a pivotal moment, opening the gates of Telangana to Chalukyan influence and control.
2. Rulers
Pulakeshin I (543 – 566 CE)
Titles: Satyashraya, DharmamaharajaFounder of the Empire: Proclaimed independence from the Kadambas and established the Chalukya dynasty.
Capital: Founded the fortress capital at Vatapi (Modern Badami), a strategically brilliant location surrounded by rugged hills.
Legitimization: Performed major Vedic sacrifices like the Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) and Hiranyagarbha (golden womb) to declare his sovereign status and legitimize his rule, as recorded in the Badami Cliff Inscription of 543 CE.
Scope: His rule was largely confined to the immediate areas around Badami, laying the foundation for future expansion.
Kirtivarman I (566 – 590 CE)
Titles: Ranavikrama (Valiant in War), Pururanaparakrama (Valiant like Puru)Achievements:The Consolidator: Expanded the kingdom significantly from its core.
Conquests: Subdued the Kadambas of Banavasi (the former overlords), the Alupas of South Canara, the Nalas of Nalavadi, and the Mauryas of the Konkan coast.
Strategic Gain: Annexed the important port of Goa (Revatidvipa), granting the Chalukyas access to maritime trade.
Secured the West: His campaigns secured the western and southern flanks of the nascent empire.
Mangalesha (590 – 610 CE)
Titles: Ururanaparakrama, ParamabhagavataRegent and Usurper: Ruled as regent for his young nephew, Pulakeshin II, but later attempted to pass the throne to his own son, Sundaravarma.
Military Campaigns: A capable ruler who continued expansion. He invaded the Kalachuri kingdom (in Gujarat and Malwa) and subdued the Gangas, Pallavas, and Alupas, as recorded in the Mahakuta Pillar inscription of 595 CE.
Patronage: Commissioned the excavation of the Badami Cave Temple No. 3.
Downfall: His attempt to usurp the throne led to a civil war with Pulakeshin II, in which Mangalesha was defeated and killed at the battle of Elapattu-Simbige in c. 610 CE. His reign was subsequently erased from many official genealogies.
Pulakeshin II (610 – 642 CE)
Titles: Satyashraya, Dakshinapatheshvara (Lord of the South)The Empire Builder: The greatest Chalukya emperor who expanded the empire to its zenith, from the Narmada River in the north to the Kaveri River in the south.
Conquest of Telangana: His most critical campaign for the region was the decisive defeat of the Vishnukundins in 611 CE (as per the Kopparam Plates), incorporating their territories in Telangana and coastal Andhra into the empire.
Hyderabad Incident: The conquest likely involved capturing strategic forts in the region, such as those near Bhongir or Golconda, securing central Telangana.
Defeat of Harsha: His most famous victory was halting the southward march of the powerful North Indian emperor Harshavardhana on the banks of the Narmada River (c. 618-620 CE).
Other Conquests: Defeated the Pallavas (initially), the Gangas, the Cholas, and the Cheras. Received homage from the King of Persia (Parasika), as mentioned in inscriptions.
Coinage: Issued gold coins (Varahas) featuring the boar emblem, signifying economic prosperity.
Final Defeat: His reign ended in tragedy when the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I avenged his earlier defeat, captured, and plundered Vatapi (Badami) in 642 CE, likely killing Pulakeshin II.
Vikramaditya I (655 – 680 CE)
Titles: Rajamalla, PribhuvarakramaThe Restorer: Son of Pulakeshin II, he spent his early life in exile. He recovered the kingdom from a 13-year Pallava occupation and internal feuds among his brothers.
Reconquest of Telangana: His Amidelpadu inscription (660 CE), issued near Alampur, declares he overthrew the enemies (the Pallavas) and restored the lost fortunes of his father, reclaiming control over Telangana and the core empire.
Continued Pallava Wars: Fought successful campaigns against the Pallava kings Mahendravarman II and Paramesvaravarman I.
Patronage: Showed a strong inclination towards Shaivism.
Vinayaditya (680 – 696 CE)
Titles: Yuddhamalla, SahasarasikaPeace and Prosperity: His reign was marked by stability and consolidation.
Military Prowess: inscriptions claim he received tribute from distant lands, including Parasika (Persia), though this likely refers to Arab traders or Sassanian remnants.
Telangana Connection: The Banagal Copper Plates (682 CE), issued from his military camp, describe his genealogy and rule, confirming Chalukya authority over the region.
Religion: Continued the policy of patronizing multiple faiths.
Vijayaditya (696 – 733 CE)
The Builder: His unusually long reign of 37 years was a period of extended peace and prosperity, allowing for a focus on architecture and culture.Temple Construction: Commissioned the building of numerous temples across the empire.
Telangana Inscriptions: The Alampur inscriptions (704, 713 CE) from his reign detail grants and construction activities, highlighting continued investment in the religious centers of Telangana.
Vikramaditya II (733 – 746 CE)
Achievements:Avenger of Vatapi: He achieved a definitive victory over the Pallavas, avenging the past humiliation.
Conqueror of Kanchi: Captured the Pallava capital Kanchipuram on three occasions (as a prince, emperor, and through his son), but notably did not destroy the city, instead making generous grants to its temples, as recorded in the Virupaksha Temple inscription.
Patron of Pattadakal: His queens, Lokamahadevi and Trilokadevi, built the magnificent Virupaksha Temple and Mallikarjuna Temple at Pattadakal to commemorate his victories. These are now UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Relations with Telangana: His successful reign ensured continued Chalukya dominance over Telangana.
Kirtivarman II (746 – 753 CE)
The Last Emperor: Faced immediate and overwhelming challenges from the start of his reign.Rebellions: Suffered a defeat against the Pandya king Maravarman Rajasimha I at the Battle of Venbai.
Rise of the Rashtrakutas: The dynasty's final blow came from its own feudatory, Dantidurga of the Rashtrakutas.
Betrayal in Telangana: Yudhamalla I of the Vemulawada Chalukyas, another key feudatory in Telangana, allied with Dantidurga.
Downfall: This coalition overthrew and defeated Kirtivarman II in 753 CE, ending the Badami Chalukya dynasty and establishing the Rashtrakuta Empire.
3. Administration
The Chalukyas developed a highly organized administrative system that balanced central control with local autonomy. This "feudal" structure was crucial for integrating diverse regions like Telangana into the empire.Central Administration (From Badami)
The Emperor (Vishaya Pattadhikari): The emperor was the supreme head, the chief commander, and the final source of authority. He was assisted by a council of ministers.The Council of Ministers: Included key figures like:
Prime Minister (Pradhana)
Commander-in-Chief (Dandanayaka)
Chief Treasurer (Bhandagarika)
Chief Secretary (Srikaranadhikrita)
Heir Apparent (Yuvaraja): The crown prince was often given governing experience by being placed in charge of a important province.
Provincial Administration
The empire was divided into large provinces for efficient governance.Major Provinces (Rashtras or Mandalas): The empire was divided into several large provinces called Rashtras (e.g., Karnataka Rashtra, Gujarat Rashtra, Telangana Rashtra). Each Rashtra was governed by a Rashtrapati, a high-ranking official often appointed directly by the emperor from the central bureaucracy.
Divisions (Vishayas): Each Rashtra was subdivided into Vishayas (districts). A Vishayapati governed each district.
Local Units (Bhuktis): Vishayas were further divided into Bhuktis (sub-divisions) consisting of groups of villages.
Local Administration (The Village Level)
The most stable and efficient unit of administration was the village.Village Assembly (Sabha or Mahajana): The village was administered by a local assembly of elders.
Village Officials: The assembly was assisted by various functionaries:
Grama Pati: Village headman.
Karnam: Accountant.
Talara: Watchman.
Senabova: Courier.
This system ensured a high degree of local self-sufficiency and remained largely unaffected by changes in higher political authority.
Administration in Telangana: The Feudatory Model
As a newly conquered and geographically distant region, Telangana was integrated using a distinct feudatory model, which was a form of indirect rule.1. Feudatory Clans (Samantas):
The Chalukyas did not impose direct rule from Badami. Instead, they relied on loyal feudatory clanswho acknowledged Chalukya overlordship.
Examples in Telangana:
The Vemulawada Chalukyas: The most prominent feudatories, they governed large parts of northern Telangana from their capital at Vemulawada.
The Mudigonda Chalukyas/Cholas: Governed the eastern Telangana region (modern Khammam district).
Local Naga Chiefs: Indigenous tribal chiefs were incorporated into the hierarchy to administer their own territories.
2. Obligations of Feudatories:
Tribute (Kara): Paid annual tribute to the imperial treasury in Badami.
Military Service: Were obligated to provide troops and support to the emperor during wars. The Telangana region, with its rich iron ore, was a crucial source of weaponry and soldiers.
Loyalty: Had to demonstrate loyalty by regularly visiting the imperial court and supporting the emperor's authority.
3. Imperial Oversight:
While autonomous, feudatories were not independent. The central government maintained control through:
Appointed Officials (Ayuktas): Imperial commissioners were stationed in strategic centers like Alampur and Bodhan to oversee revenue collection, maintain law and order, and ensure the feudatories' loyalty.
Royal Grants: The emperor retained the right to issue land grants (as seen in the Alampur inscriptions), bypassing the feudatory if needed, which reinforced central authority.
4. Strategic Centers:
Key fortified towns like Alampur (religious and strategic river confluence), Vemulawada (feudatory capital), and Bodhan served as crucial nodes for military control, trade, and administration, ensuring the empire's presence was felt.
Conclusion on Telangana's Administration
The administration in Telangana was a hybrid model. It was indirect through feudatory clans who handled day-to-day governance, but it was supervised by centrally appointed officials and underpinned by the overwhelming military power of the Badami emperor. This system allowed the Chalukyas to efficiently exploit the region's economic resources (agriculture, iron ore) and strategic location while minimizing the administrative burden on the core of the empire. This very model, however, would later contribute to their downfall when powerful feudatories like the Vemulawada Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas withdrew their support.4. Subordinate Rulers in Telangana
The Chalukyas ruled Telangana through powerful subordinate families who were local chieftains. The most important among them were:1. The Vemulawada Chalukyas
This was a prolific branch of the Chalukya family itself, ruling from Vemulawada (in present-day Rajanna-Sircilla district) as loyal feudatories. They were key allies in administering the northern parts of Telangana. Ironically, as the main dynasty weakened, Yudhamalla I of Vemulawada allied with Dantidurga to overthrow the last Badami king, Kirtivarman II, in 753 AD.
While the Vemulawada Chalukyas were the most prominent feudatory family in Telangana, the Badami Chalukyas governed the region through a network of diverse subordinate rulers (samantas). This layered administrative system allowed them to manage the territory effectively without direct control from their distant capital in Badami. Key groups included:
2. The Mudigonda Chalukyas (Mudigonda Cholas)
Region of Influence: Ruled from Mudigonda in present-day Khammam district, eastern Telangana. Their territory likely extended along the Godavari River valley, including areas around Kothagudemand Bhadrachalam.Identity: Often termed "Cholas" in historical records, they were likely local Telugu chieftains who submitted to Chalukya authority. Their name suggests a blend of local identity and political alignment with the Chalukyas.
Role: Governed the eastern frontiers of Telangana, securing trade routes along the Godavari River and acting as a buffer zone against powers in Kalinga (Odisha) and coastal Andhra.
3. Local Naga Chiefs
Region of Influence: Scattered across Telangana, especially in central and northern regions, including areas around Warangal, Karimnagar, and Nalgonda. Specific Naga-dominated areas included the forests and hills of Adilabad and Kommugudem (Khammam).Identity: Indigenous tribal leaders who ruled small chiefdoms. They held deep-rooted influence over their territories and populations.
Role: The Chalukyas incorporated these chiefs into their feudal hierarchy. In exchange for acknowledging Chalukya suzerainty and providing local troops, the Naga chiefs retained autonomy over their lands. This strategy ensured stability and leveraged local knowledge.
3. Appointed Officials (Ayuktas and Maharajulas)
Administrative Titles: The Chalukyas also deployed centrally appointed officials:Ayuktas: High-ranking commissioners or governors tasked with overseeing regions on behalf of the emperor. They were often stationed in strategic locations such as Alampur (Jogulamba District) and Bodhan (Nizamabad District).
Maharajulas: "Great kings" – a title granted to powerful feudatories or governors who exercised significant autonomy but remained subordinate to Badami. Their influence spanned key economic zones like the Krishna River basin (including parts of Mahbubnagar and Nalgonda).
Role: These officials, often drawn from the Chalukya core in Karnataka, implemented imperial policies, collected revenue, and maintained law and order. Their authority was derived directly from the emperor and was not necessarily hereditary.
5. Economy and Trade
The economy of the Badami Chalukya empire was a robust combination of agriculture, resource extraction, and strategic trade. The integration of the Telangana region significantly enhanced this economic foundation, providing critical resources and controlling key trade routes.Agriculture: The Foundation of Wealth
The empire's control over the fertile river basins of the Krishna, Godavari, Tungabhadra, Malaprabha, and Kaveri enabled highly productive agriculture. Primary crops included rice (in river deltas and coastal areas), millets (such as jowar and bajra), pulses, sugarcane, and cotton. The widespread practice of land grants (Agraharas) to Brahmins and temples, documented in numerous inscriptions, encouraged land clearance and cultivation. This not only expanded agricultural output but also integrated new regions into the empire's economic and cultural systems. The construction of irrigation tanks and canals supported stable farming and increased productivity.
Mineral Resources and Industries
Telangana's mineral-rich plateau, particularly areas like Karimnagar, Nirmal, and Adilabad, was a major source of high-grade iron ore. This resource was crucial for producing weaponry—swords, spears, armor, and arrows—for the powerful Chalukyan military. It also supplied tools for agriculture and construction. Additionally, high-quality Indian steel (Wootz steel) became a valuable export. The Krishna and Godavari river basins also yielded diamonds and other precious stones, adding to the region's wealth. Local industries flourished, including textile weaving (using locally grown cotton), pottery, metalworking, and sculpture, which supported extensive temple construction.
Trade: Routes and Hubs
Telangana’s strategic location made it a vital junction for trade:
It served as an east-west corridor, linking Arabian Sea ports (such as those in Konkan) with Bay of Bengal ports and the prosperous eastern kingdoms.
It also lay on the Dakshinapatha (Southern Road), the major north-south trade route connecting northern India with the peninsula.
Key commercial and religious centers in Telangana included Alampur (at the confluence of the Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers), Vemulawada (a political and trade hub), and ancient fortified towns like Bodhan and Elgandal.
Maritime Trade
Although the Chalukyan core was inland, their control over Konkan coast ports—including Goa (Revatidvipa), Chaul, and Gharapuri (Elephanta)—was vital. These ports facilitated exports of iron, steel, spices, textiles, and precious stones. Imports included horses (from Arabia and Central Asia, essential for cavalry), gold, silk, and luxury goods. The maritime network connected the empire to the Persian Gulf (referred to in inscriptions as "Parasika"), the Red Sea, and Southeast Asia, integrating the Chalukyas into Indian Ocean trade.
Telangana’s Economic Contribution
Agriculture: The Krishna and Godavari valleys produced surplus food grains and cotton.
Minerals: Iron ore and diamonds were Telangana’s most significant contributions, supplying military and export needs.
Trade: The region’s location enabled control over vital trade routes, generating revenue from tariffs and commerce.
Industry: Local production of tools, weapons, and textiles from regional resources supported economic self-sufficiency.
The annexation of Telangana under Pulakeshin II was not only a military achievement but also a major economic gain, providing essential raw materials, agricultural output, and command over trade networks that sustained Chalukyan prosperity and power.
6. Society in the Chalukya Era
The integration of Telangana into the Chalukya empire introduced new administrative and social structures, creating a complex and hierarchical society.6.1 Society in Telangana
The social fabric of Telangana was shaped by imperial policies from Badami and the practices of local feudatories.
Feudal Structure: Society was organized around a clear hierarchy. The emperor in Badami stood at the apex, followed by feudatory rulers (like the Vemulawada Chalukyas), local chiefs (nayakas), and then the various classes of farmers, artisans, and merchants. This structure integrated Telangana into a vast Deccan-wide political system.
Agrahara Settlements: The Chalukya practice of making land grants to Brahmins was implemented in Telangana. These grants, frequently recorded in inscriptions, led to the establishment of Agraharams (Brahmin settlements). These became nuclei of Vedic learning, Sanskrit culture, and local administration, profoundly shaping the social and economic landscape of Telangana villages.
Merchant Guilds: Powerful guilds like the Manigramam and Five Hundred Swamis of Aihole, well-documented in Karnataka, would have operated along the trade routes of Telangana. These guilds facilitated commerce, controlled trade, and often made donations to temples, significantly influencing the region's economic and cultural life.
Religious Coexistence: The Chalukyan model of supporting all faiths created a environment of religious coexistence. This meant Jain merchants, Shaiva priests, and Vaishnava saints all operated within the same social sphere, contributing to a diverse and syncretic society.
7. Art and Culture
The Chalukya period catalyzed a cultural renaissance in Telangana, most visibly expressed in a revolution in stone temple architecture and religious patronage.7.1 Art and Culture in Telangana
Telangana became a vibrant center of cultural production, reflecting the broader syncretic culture of the Chalukyan Deccan.Religious Patronage and Syncretism:
Shaivism emerged as the dominant sect, receiving lavish royal endowments from both the Badami overlords and local feudatories. Centers like Alampur and Vemulawada became major Shaivite pilgrimage sites.
Vaishnavism also flourished, as evidenced by sculptural and inscriptional references across various sites.
Jainism enjoyed continued patronage, particularly from merchant guilds and local officials. Numerous loose sculptures of Tirthankaras and inscriptions point to active and prosperous Jain communities in the region.
The royal policy of supporting all faiths fostered a unique environment of religious coexistence in Telangana.
Linguistic Landscape:
Sanskrit remained the primary language for royal proclamations, eulogies (prashastis), and theological discourse, as seen in the polished inscriptions at Alampur.
Kannada, as the language of the imperial administration, was used in administrative orders and boundary descriptions, underscoring the region's integration into the empire.
Telugu existed as the primary spoken vernacular of the people. While the official sphere was dominated by Sanskrit and Kannada, this period saw the gradual development of early Telugu in the cultural background, laying the groundwork for its future literary efflorescence.
7.2 Architectural Revolution in Telangana
The period marks the beginning of a prolific phase of permanent stone temple construction in the region, moving beyond earlier brick and wood structures.The Alampur School of Architecture:
Nava-Brahma Temples: This group of nine temples (e.g., Taraka Brahma, Swarga Brahma) is the pinnacle of Early Chalukyan art in Telangana.
Style Synthesis: They are a masterful blend of:
Nagara (North Indian): The curvilinear shikhara (superstructure).
Dravida (South Indian): The concept of a walled enclosure (prakara), gateway, and certain pillar designs.
Local Idioms: Unique decorative motifs and spatial layouts specific to the region.
Iconography: The temples feature exquisite carvings of deities from the Hindu pantheon (Durga, Surya, Narasimha), secular figures, and intricate narrative panels from the epics.
The Vemulawada School of Architecture:
Sri Rajarajeshwara Temple: Under the patronage of the Vemulawada Chalukya feudatories, this site grew into a major cultural and pilgrimage center.
Distinct Features: The architecture here developed its own characteristics, often with a strong emphasis on ornate pillar mandapas (halls) and elaborate sculptural decoration, influencing later Kalyani Chalukya temples in the region.
Summary: Telangana's Cultural Transformation
The Chalukya period was a defining era for Telangana. It was not merely a political annexation but a deep cultural integration into the Deccan world. Architecturally, it marked the birth of a distinct regional style. Religiously, it established major pilgrimage centers. The society that emerged was complex, multi-lingual, and multi-religious, characterized by royal patronage and the growth of urban temple centers.
8. Foreign Relations Involving Telangana
The Telangana plateau, rich in resources and strategically located, was a crucial territory for the Badami Chalukyas. Its control was not just a matter of prestige but a strategic imperative, making it a primary flashpoint in the Chalukyas' foreign conflicts. The region's history during this era was shaped by two major, defining rivalries.1. The Eastern Campaign: Conquest of the Vishnukundins (c. 611 CE)
The Adversary: The Vishnukundin dynasty was a powerful sovereign force based in the eastern Deccan, with their core territories in coastal Andhra and Telangana. They were the dominant power in the region and a natural rival to the rising Chalukyas.The Strategic Goal: For Pulakeshin II, subduing the Vishnukundins was the essential first step to secure his eastern flank. Control over Telangana provided:
Resources: Access to the region's rich iron ore deposits, crucial for weaponry and wealth.
Strategic Depth: It created a buffer zone and prevented the Vishnukundins from allying with his other enemies, particularly the Pallavas.
Trade Routes: Command over the east-west trade corridors passing through the Telangana plateau.
The Outcome: The conflict was decisive. As recorded in the Kopparam Plates (611 CE), Pulakeshin II inflicted a crushing defeat on the Vishnukundin king, likely Manchana Bhattaraka. This victory effectively dismantled the Vishnukundin kingdom, incorporating Telangana and coastal Andhra into the Chalukya empire. This campaign demonstrated Pulakeshin II's strategic vision and transformed the Chalukyas into a pan-Deccan power.
2. The Southern Rivalry: The Pallava Wars for Telangana
The conflict with the Pallavas of Kanchi was the longest and most bitter struggle for the Chalukyas, and Telangana was a key theater in this war.The Stakes: For both empires, control of the eastern Deccan (including Telangana) was crucial. It offered access to the resources mentioned above and strategic positioning to launch attacks into the other's heartland.
The First Pallava Invasion (642 CE): Following his defeat of Pulakeshin II, the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I (c. 630–668 CE) launched a devastating counter-offensive. His armies marched north, capturing and sacking the Chalukya capital Vatapi (Badami). critically, this campaign would have involved seizing control of Telangana, severing the Chalukya empire in two and demonstrating the region's vulnerability.
Telangana under Pallava Occupation (c. 642–655 CE): For approximately 13 years, parts of the eastern Chalukya empire, including Telangana, likely fell under Pallava suzerainty. This period represents a major disruption in Chalukya control and administration in the region.
The Chalukya Reconquest: The task of liberating Telangana and the core territories fell to Vikramaditya I (655–680 CE). His Amidelpadu inscription (660 CE), issued near Alampur, explicitly states his goal was to "overthrow the enemies" who had caused the loss of his father's fortune. His successful campaigns expelled the Pallavas from Vatapi and re-established Chalukya authority over Telangana.
Ongoing Conflict: The struggle continued for generations. The eastern frontier with the Pallavas remained heavily fortified. Later kings like Vikramaditya II (733–744 CE) would launch campaigns from this base, famously attacking and capturing the Pallava capital Kanchipuram on three occasions, thereby finally avenging the earlier defeats.
3. Other Interactions
Feudatory Relations: Telangana was largely administered through loyal feudatory families, most notably the Vemulawada Chalukyas. These rulers acted as a buffer, managing local administration and defense, and ensuring the region's integration into the empire.Northern Frontiers: While the primary threats were from the east and south, the northern borders of Telangana faced pressure from smaller kingdoms like the Vakatakas (earlier) and later the Kalachuris, though these were secondary to the existential struggle with the Pallavas.
In summary, Telangana's role in Chalukya foreign policy was dual: it was both the prized reward for victory over the Vishnukundins and the vulnerable frontline in the epic, century-long struggle against the Pallavas. Its possession was a key indicator of Chalukyan power—its loss a sign of decline, and its recovery a symbol of imperial restoration.
9. Achievements and Legacy in Telangana
The Badami Chalukya period was not merely an interlude of rule but a transformative era that fundamentally altered Telangana's political, administrative, and cultural landscape.1. Political Integration and Reshaping the Deccan
End of the Vishnukundins: The Chalukya conquest under Pulakeshin II in 611 CE was a watershed moment. It did not just defeat a rival; it completely dismantled the Vishnukundin kingdom, the primary native power in the eastern Deccan for centuries. This erased old political boundaries and integrated Telangana into a vast, pan-Deccan empire for the first time, connecting it directly to the political core in Karnataka.Strategic Province: Telangana was transformed from a sovereign kingdom into a strategically vital eastern province of the Chalukya empire. Its resources and location made it essential for the empire's economic and military security, particularly as a buffer and launching pad against the Pallavas of Kanchi.
2. Institutionalization of a Feudatory Administrative Model
Blueprint for Governance: The Chalukyas established a highly effective model of indirect rulethrough loyal feudatory families. They appointed subordinates like the Vemulawada Chalukyas to manage the region.Lasting Impact: This model of delegating power to local Telugu-speaking chiefs proved incredibly durable. It became the standard administrative template for successive major Deccan empires, including the Rashtrakutas and the Kalyani Chalukyas, who continued to rule Telangana through similar feudatory structures for another 500 years.
Rise of Local Powers: This system allowed Telugu dynasties to gain experience in statecraft and military leadership. The Vemulawada Chalukyas are a prime example of a local family that grew in power and prestige under this system.
3. Foundation of a Distinct Architectural and Cultural Identity
Architectural Revolution: The Chalukyas initiated the first major wave of permanent stone temple construction in Telangana, moving beyond brick and wood. They introduced a sophisticated style that synthesized North Indian (Nagara) and South Indian (Dravida) forms with local sensibilities.Enduring Centers: They established Alampur and Vemulawada as major religious and cultural capitals. The Nava-Brahma temples at Alampur and the growth of the Rajarajeshwara templecomplex at Vemulawada created pilgrimage hubs that continued to be developed and revered for centuries. This architectural foundation was directly built upon by later dynasties like the Kakatiyas, who are famed for their temples at Hanamkonda and Warangal.
Cultural Synthesis: The patronage of both Shaivism and Jainism created a syncretic religious environment. The establishment of Agrahara settlements (Brahmin villages) through land grants deepened the influence of Vedic and Sanskritic culture in the agrarian society of Telangana.
4. The Irony of Decline: The Role of Telangana's Feudatories
The Strategic Importance Revealed: The ultimate downfall of the Badami Chalukyas underscores Telangana's critical role. By the mid-8th century, the central authority had weakened.The Revolt of the Feudatories: Dantidurga, the Rashtrakuta chief, who was himself a Chalukya feudatory from Maharashtra, orchestrated the empire's overthrow. Crucially, he allied with Yudhamalla I of the Vemulawada Chalukyas—the very subordinates tasked with guarding the Chalukya interests in Telangana.
A Lasting Legacy: This betrayal demonstrates that Telangana was not a passive territory but a power center in its own right. The ambitions of its governors could directly influence the fate of the empire itself. The administrative model the Chalukyas created—relying on powerful feudatories—ultimately contained the seeds of their own destruction when central power waned.
In summary, the Badami Chalukyas legacy in Telangana is threefold:
Politically, they made it a core part of the Deccan political world.
Administratively, they instituted a feudal model that defined governance for centuries.
Culturally, they laid the foundational stones for the region's iconic temple architecture and syncretic traditions, setting the stage for the golden age of the Kakatiyas. Their rule was the crucial catalyst that set Telangana on its distinct historical path.
10. The Telugu Language in the Badami Chalukya Era
The development of the Telugu language in the Telangana region under the Badami Chalukyas is a story of a vibrant spoken vernacular existing within a complex linguistic environment, where it began its gradual transition into a written literary language.Telugu as the Living Vernacular
Despite the official use of Sanskrit for royal proclamations and religion and Kannada for imperial administration, Telugu remained the primary spoken language (deshabhasha) of the vast majority of the population in Telangana. Its daily use in homes, markets, and local communities ensured its continuity and strength as the language of the land, preserving its unique identity and cultural expressions throughout the period.
Early Literary Development
The Badami Chalukya era (6th-8th centuries) coincides with the very earliest, tentative beginnings of Telugu as a written literary language. However, this development was not centered in the Kannada-administered Telangana but was happening further east in the coastal Andhra region, under the rule of the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, a collateral branch of the Chalukya family.
The first identifiable Telugu words appear in inscriptions that are still largely in Prakrit or Sanskrit, such as the Erragudipadu inscription (mid-6th century).
The first truly Telugu inscriptions, like the Boppudi inscription (late 7th century), emerge in this eastern zone, indicating that the movement to adapt the Telugu language to written forms was gaining momentum, albeit outside the direct sphere of Badami.
The Seeds of Future Growth
The political integration of Telangana into the Chalukya Deccan empire, while administratively favoring other languages, inadvertently created conditions that would later benefit Telugu.
The stability and economic activity fostered by the Chalukyas supported the agrarian and trading communities that formed the core of Telugu society.
The patronage of temple culture, as seen at sites like Alampur and Vemulawada, provided a cultural nucleus around which local Telugu traditions could thrive and eventually seek literary expression.
The gradual adoption of Telugu features by local feudatory rulers, such as the Vemulawada Chalukyas in their later inscriptions, shows the undeniable pressure and influence of the local linguistic environment, even on Kannada-speaking elites.
In essence, the Badami period served as an incubator for the Telugu language in Telangana. While it had not yet broken through as an official language, its unwavering presence as the spoken tongue of the people preserved its vitality. The cultural and economic frameworks established during this era laid the essential groundwork for Telugu's spectacular literary flowering in the subsequent centuries under dynasties like the Kakatiyas, who would wholeheartedly adopt Telugu as a primary language of their court and culture.
11. Chronology, Dating, and Inscriptions
The history of the Badami Chalukyas is meticulously reconstructed from hundreds of stone and copper-plate inscriptions. These records are vital as they provide exact dates, genealogies, and accounts of military campaigns, allowing historians to build a precise chronology.How Dates Were Decided: The Saka Era and Astronomical Dating
The Saka Era: The primary calendar system used in Chalukya inscriptions is the Saka era, which begins in 78 AD. An inscription mentioning "Saka 500" refers to 500 years after 78 AD, i.e., 578 AD. This was the standard dating system across much of ancient India.
Regnal Years: Inscriptions are also dated to the regnal year of the current king (e.g., "in the 5th year of the reign of Vijayaditya").
Astronomical Verification: The most reliable method for precise dating comes from inscriptions that include astronomical details alongside the Saka year. References to the position of planets, lunar cycles, solar eclipses, or lunar eclipses allow modern astronomers to calculate the exact Julian or Gregorian calendar date.
Example: The Polamuru plates of the Vishnukundins are explicitly dated with a lunar eclipse, allowing historians to pin the date to 611 CE with absolute certainty.
Cross-Referencing: The chronology is verified by cross-referencing multiple inscriptions from different reigns and even different dynasties (e.g., Pallava, Vishnukundin) that mention the same event, such as a battle.
Key Dating Inscriptions for the Dynasty:
Badami Cliff Inscription of Pulakeshin I (543 AD): Dated Saka 465 (543 AD), it establishes the founding date of the Chalukya empire at Badami.
Mahakuta Pillar Inscription of Mangalesha (595 AD): Provides details of his reign and military victories.
Aihole Inscription of Pulakeshin II (634 AD): A poetic prashasti (eulogy) by his court poet Ravikirti. It is one of the most important sources for his reign, detailing his victories over Harsha, the Pallavas, and others.
Hyderabad Grant of Pulakeshin II (631 AD): Dated Saka 553, it confirms his victory over the Vishnukundins occurred before this date.
Kopparam Plates of Pulakeshin II (611 AD, 21 October): A crucial record that explicitly dates the defeat of the Vishnukundins to 611 CE.
Pattadakal Virupaksha Temple Inscription: Records Vikramaditya II's triple conquest of Kanchipuram and the construction of the temple by Queen Lokamahadevi.
Key Telangana Inscriptions
The following inscriptions, found within the Telangana region, are critical for understanding the extent of Chalukya administration, their religious patronage, and the precise timeline of their control over the area.Amidelpadu Inscription (660 AD):
King: Vikramaditya I
Location: Near Alampur, Mahabubnagar District.
Significance: Issued in the 5th regnal year. It declares that Vikramaditya I restored the royal fortune of his father (Pulakeshin II) by overthrowing his enemies (the Pallavas) and restoring properties to gods and Brahmins. It is a key record of the Chalukya reconquest of Telangana from the Pallavas.
Alampur Inscriptions (704 AD, 713 AD):
King: Vijayaditya
Location: Alampur, Jogulamba District.
Significance: These inscriptions, dated to the 8th and 18th regnal years of Vijayaditya, record the construction of temple complex walls (prakara) under the orders of the king. They are written in Sanskrit but use Kannada script, confirming the use of Kannada in administration. They are vital for understanding temple patronage and grants in the region.
Banagal Grant (or Copper Plates) of Vinayaditya (682 AD):
King: Vinayaditya
Location: Issued from the military camp at Banumgal (modern Banagal, Karnataka).
Significance: Dated Saka 604 (27th April, 682 AD), this inscription provides the genealogy of the Chalukya family and details Vinayaditya's reign. It confirms the continued Chalukya control and administrative activity in the region bordering Telangana.
Inscriptions of the Vemulawada Chalukyas:
Dynasty: Vemulawada Chalukyas (Feudatories)
Location: Vemulawada, Rajanna-Sircilla District.
Significance: Numerous inscriptions from this feudatory family, including the later Pattadakal inscription of Arikesari II written in Telugu, trace their lineage to the main Badami Chalukyas. They provide crucial evidence for how the empire was managed through local subordinates and show the gradual cultural and linguistic shift towards Telugu in the region.
12. Successor States in Telangana
After the fall of the Badami Chalukyas in 753 AD:The Rashtrakutas became the new overlords of Telangana.
The Vemulawada Chalukyas continued to rule as feudatories, now under the Rashtrakutas.
Later, the Kalyani Chalukyas (Western Chalukyas) would revive Chalukyan rule over the region in the 10th century.
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