Rashtrakuta Dynasty of Manyakheta

The Rashtrakuta Dynasty (c. 753 – 973 CE) was a powerful imperial power that ruled large parts of the Indian subcontinent between the 8th and 10th centuries. From their capital at Manyakheta (modern Malkhed, Karnataka), they presided over a vast empire that at its peak stretched from the Ganga-Yamuna doab in the north to Kanyakumari in the south. They were formidable rivals to the Gurjara-Pratiharas of the north and the Palas of the east in the "Tripartite Struggle" for Kannauj. The dynasty was a great patron of arts, architecture, and literature, leaving behind the magnificent rock-cut Kailasa temple at Ellora as a testament to their architectural prowess.

Founder Dantidurga (r. c. 735-756 CE). He overthrew his Chalukyan overlord, Kirtivarman II, around 753 CE to establish independent Rashtrakuta rule.
Capitals Primary Capital: Manyakheta (present-day Malkhed in the Kalaburagi district, Karnataka state).
Other Important Centers: Ellora (rock-cut capital), Latur (early capital).
Core Territory Heartland: Modern-day Karnataka, southern Maharashtra, and parts of northern Andhra Pradesh.
Empire at its Peak (under Govinda III & Krishna III): Stretched from the Ganga-Yamuna doab (north) to Kanyakumari (south), and from the Arabian Sea (west) to the Bay of Bengal (east) after conquering Vengi.
Languages Kannada: The administrative language and language of many literary masterpieces.
Sanskrit: The language of scholarly works, inscriptions, and courtly literature.
Religion Hinduism (Primarily Shaivism): The Kailasa temple at Ellora is a monumental Shaivite project.
Jainism: Enjoyed immense patronage, especially under Emperor Amoghavarsha I. Many literary works were composed by Jain scholars.
Important Rulers 

1. Krishna I (r. c. 756-774 CE): Consolidated the empire; commissioned the Kailasa Temple at Ellora.
2. Dhruva Dharavarsha (r. c. 780-793 CE): First to aggressively campaign into North India, defeating the Gurjara-Pratiharas and Palas.
3. Govinda III (r. c. 793-814 CE): Brought the empire to its zenith of military power, subjugating rulers from Kannauj to Kanchi.
4. Amoghavarsha I (r. c. 814-878 CE): The greatest Rashtrakuta emperor. A pacifist, scholar, and patron of arts & literature; authored the Kavirajamarga; made Manyakheta the capital.
5. Krishna III (r. c. 939-967 CE): The last great emperor; defeated the Cholas decisively at the Battle of Takkolam (c. 949 CE) and expanded the empire to Rameswaram.
Notable Rulers 

Indra III (r. c. 914-929 CE): Powerful ruler who captured and sacked the Pratihara capital of Kannauj.
Khottiga Amoghavarsha (r. c. 967-972 CE): His reign saw the irreversible decline begin after the Paramara sack of Manyakheta.

Predecessor The Badami Chalukyas (also known as Early Chalukyas), whom the Rashtrakutas served as feudatories before their rebellion.
Successor The Western Chalukyas of Kalyani (Tailapa II). A Rashtrakuta feudatory who overthrew the last emperor, Karka II, in 973 CE.

Chronology of Key Events

c. 753 CE: Dantidurga overthrows the Badami Chalukyas and establishes the Rashtrakuta Empire.

c. 756-774 CE: Reign of Krishna I, who completes the conquest of Chalukya territories and initiates the construction of the Kailasa temple.
c. 780-793 CE: Reign of Dhruva Dharavarsha, the first Rashtrakuta emperor to successfully campaign deep into North India.
c. 793-814 CE: Reign of Govinda III, under whom the empire reached its zenith of military power.
c. 814-878 CE: Reign of Amoghavarsha I, a long and prosperous reign marked by cultural flourishing and a shift of the capital to Manyakheta.
c. 939-967 CE: Reign of Krishna III, the last great emperor, who defeated the Cholas and erected a victory pillar at Rameswaram.
c. 972 CE: Paramara King Siyaka II attacks and plunders the capital Manyakheta.
c. 973 CE: Tailapa II, a Chalukya feudatory, overthrows the last Rashtrakuta king, Karka II, and establishes the Kalyani Chalukya dynasty.

Key Historical Significance

Architectural Marvel: Commissioning the Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora, the world's largest monolithic rock excavation.
Imperial Power: Establishing one of the largest and most powerful empires of early medieval India.
Cultural Synthesis: Promoting a multi-religious environment where Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism flourished.
Literary Patronage: Making Kannada and Sanskrit literature thrive, with court poets producing seminal works.
Maritime Trade: Controlling key western ports like Broach (Bharuch), facilitating prosperous trade with the Arab world.

1. Origins and Rise

The origins of the Rashtrakutas are debated, with theories suggesting they were initially feudatories of the Badami Chalukyas. Their rise to power was orchestrated by Dantidurga (r. 735-756 CE), who, starting from the Ellora region, defeated his Chalukya overlord, Kirtivarman II, around 753 CE. He expanded his control through successful campaigns against the Gurjaras, Malavas, and other kingdoms in Central India, laying the foundation for a formidable empire.

2. Rulers

Dantidurga c. 735-756 CE 

Titles: Prithvi Vallabha, Khadgavaloka. Achievements: Founder of the empire; overthrew the Badami Chalukyas; conducted the Hiranya-garbha ritual to claim Kshatriya status.

Krishna I c. 756-774 CE 

Titles: Shubhatunga, Akalavarsha. Achievements: Consolidated the empire; conquered the Gangas and Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi; commissioned the rock-cut Kailasa Temple at Ellora.

Govinda II c. 774-780 CE 

A weak ruler with little interest in administration, leading to his deposition by his younger brother.

Dhruva Dharavarsha c. 780-793 CE 

Titles: Srivallabha, Dharavarsha, Kalivallabha. Achievements: First to intervene in the tripartite struggle; defeated the Gurjara-Pratihara king Vatsaraja and the Pala king Dharmapala.

Govinda III c. 793-814 CE 

Titles: Prabhutavarsha, Jagattunga. Achievements: Empire's peak military power; defeated Nagabhata II of Pratiharas and installed a proxy on the throne of Kannauj; subjugated the Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras.

Amoghavarsha I c. 814-878 CE 

Titles: Nripatunga, Atishayadhavala. Achievements: Greatest Rashtrakuta emperor; a pacifist and scholar; patron of arts and literature; authored Kavirajamarga; made Manyakheta the capital; embraced Jainism.

Krishna II c. 878-914 CE

 Faced a major revolt by the Eastern Chalukyas but managed to retain control.

Indra III c. 914-929 CE 

Achievements: Powerful ruler; captured and sacked Kannauj, defeating King Mahipala of the Pratiharas.

Krishna III c. 939-967 CE 

Titles: Kannara, Akalavarsha. Achievements: Last great emperor; defeated the Cholas at Takkolam (c. 949 CE); captured Kanchi and Rameswaram; erected a victory pillar there.

Khottiga Amoghavarsha c. 967-972 CE 

His reign saw the decline begin. The Paramara king Siyaka II attacked and sacked Manyakheta.

Karka II c. 972-973 CE 

The last ruler; was overthrown by his feudatory, Tailapa II, who founded the Kalyani Chalukya dynasty.

3. Administration

The empire was divided into Rashtras (provinces) under a Rashtrapati, Vishayas (districts) under a Vishayapati, and Bhuktis (smaller subdivisions). The administration was highly decentralized, relying on a hierarchy of feudatories and officials. Key titles included:

Mahasandhivigrahika: Minister of Foreign Affairs.
Mahabaladhikrita: Commander-in-Chief.

The empire had a strong and well-organized army and navy.

4. Economy and Trade

The economy was robust, based on advanced agriculture, thriving industries (textiles, ivory, metallurgy), and extensive trade. Key ports like Broach (Bharuch), Chaul, and Sopara were major centers of maritime trade with the Arab empires, Persia, and Southeast Asia. They exported cotton, spices, ivory, and precious stones and imported gold, horses, and luxury goods. Arab accounts by merchants like Sulaiman al-Tajir praise the Rashtrakutas for their wealth and power.

5. Society

Society was structured along traditional Varna lines but was remarkably pluralistic. Jainism enjoyed high patronage, especially under Amoghavarsha I, while Shaivism was also prominent. Women enjoyed a respectable position with access to education and participation in fine arts, though practices like Sati existed among the royalty. The presence of Arabs for trade led to the establishment of small Muslim communities in port cities.

6. Art and Culture

This period was a golden age for Kannada and Sanskrit literature.

Literature:
Kannada: Amoghavarsha I's Kavirajamarga is the earliest available work on poetics in Kannada. Court poets like Pampa (Adi Purana), Ponna (Shanti Purana), and Sri Vijaya were legendary.

Sanskrit: Mathematician Mahaviracharya wrote Ganita Sara Samgraha; Jinasena wrote Adi Purana.

Architecture: The Rashtrakuta style is a bridge between early Chalukyan and later Hoysala styles.

Ellora Caves: The pinnacle of their achievement is the Kailasanatha Temple (Cave 16), a monolithic structure carved from a single rock cliff.

Temples at Pattadakal: Other notable temples include the Jain Narayana temple and the Kashi Vishweswara temple.

7. Foreign Relations

The Rashtrakutas maintained complex relations:

North India: Constant rivalry with the Gurjara-Pratiharas and Palas for control of the Gangetic plain (Tripartite Struggle).
South India: Fought against the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, Pallavas, and later the Cholas.
International: Maintained friendly and prosperous trade relations with the Abbasid Caliphate in the Middle East, in stark contrast to their Hindu rivals in the north who were fighting Arab incursions.

8. Achievements and Legacy

Built one of the most powerful empires of medieval India.
Created the unparalleled architectural wonder of the Kailasa temple
Established a golden age for Kannada literature.
Fostered a cosmopolitan, multi-religious society that encouraged art and learning.
Their decline created a power vacuum, leading to the rise of their feudatories, the Later Chalukyas of Kalyani, and the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri.

9. Chronology, Dating and Inscriptions

Rashtrakuta inscriptions use regnal years of kings and occasionally the Saka era. Thousands of inscriptions in Kannada and Sanskrit, on copper plates and stone pillars, provide detailed accounts of grants, genealogies, and military victories. Key examples include:
Manne inscription (803 CE): Details the achievements of Govinda III.
Jura (Jabalpur) inscription (875 CE): Prithvi Vallabha inscription.
Inscriptions from Ellora and Samangadh: Provide crucial historical data.

10. Successor States/Vassals

The Rashtrakuta empire was supported by numerous feudatory families, many of whom became independent powers after 973 CE.
Western Chalukyas of Kalyani: The primary successors. Their king, Tailapa II, was a Rashtrakuta vassal who overthrew Karka II.
Kakatiyas of Warangal: Initially vassals (as mentioned in the Koravi inscription), they later established an independent kingdom.
Vemulavada Chalukyas: Loyal vassals based in Karimnagar/Nizamabad, they played a key role in supporting the empire and, at times, in internal succession disputes.
Others: The Seuna (Yadava) dynasty of Devagiri, the Hoysalas, and the Kalachuris of Tripuri were also once under Rashtrakuta suzerainty.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/45435399
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashtrakuta_dynasty

http://www.importantindia.com/12749/complete-history-of-rashtrakuta-dynasty-rashtrakuta-kings/