Gangapuram Chenna Keshava Swamy Temple

Gangapuram Chenna Keshava Swamy Temple is located in Gangapuram Village, Jadcherla Mandal, Mahabubnagar district, Telangana State, India.

Built in 1042 AD is one of the important temples existing in South India and it is mentioned in Skandha Purana. This place is located about 5 Kms from Jadcherla towards Kalwakurthy in Mahabubnagar District. 

The place became very famous during the reign of Chalukya kings of Badami. The Chalukya king of Kalyani Sri Thrailokya Malla Somwswarudu (1042 A.D. to 1063 A.D.) built Kesava Swamy Temple. 

From then this place was known as Kesavapuram. Earlier it was called as Mayapuram, Mathsyapuram and dhurithapuram etc. the main deity of this temple is Sri Kesava Swmay and the sculpture here is very attractive. There is an evidence of Jaina Kalamukha and shiva religions spread here. Every year festival of this temple will be celebrated on the day of Radhasapthami and people participate in this event on a large scale.

Sri Chenna Kesava Swamy is the presiding deity in this temple along with his consort Sri Lakshmi Devi. The Lord sports a mustache and holds the Chakra in his left hand and the Shankham in his right hand. The Sri Lakshmi Chenna Kesava Temple sculpture of this temple exhibits the glory of Hindavadharma and is built in the Indian style of architecture. The idol is made of black granite and the Prabhavali is usually made of brass. There is a beautiful mandapam in the middle of the modern structure whose base has almost been covered over leaving only a group of elephants in different poses running through it. The outer sanctuary has 20 ancient pillars with 12 facing the sanctum sanctorum. Around these pillars are kept the five beautiful and fairly new bronze Vahanas of Hamsa, Sesha, Garuda, Hanumantha and Ashwa.

Chenna Kesava Swamy, Anjaneya Swamy, Lakshmi Devi and Chaturbuja Ganapathi are the deities in the temple. Rathasapthami, Brahmotsavam, Kalyanotsavam on Maghashudha Chavithi, Ganga Thirunalla (every 2 years) and Ganga Jathara (every 2 Years) are the important festivals celebrated.

Temple Timings
Morning: 5:30 am to 12:30 pm
Evening: 4:00 am to 7:30 pm

Read More

Alvanpalli Gollatha Temple or Gullu

Gollatha Temple is a holy shrine for Jains located near Alvanpalli village, Jadcherla Mandal of Mahabubnagar District, Telangana State, India.

Alvanpalli (Gollathagudi) village is located about 10 km from Jadcherlatown and nearly 30 km from the district headquarters of Mahabubnagar. It is well accessible by road. 

According to the department of archaeology and museums, there are only two ancient structures in the country built of bricks.

While one lies in total ruin at Gollatha Gullu in Alwanpally in Jadcherla, the other is the oldest Hindu temple built during the Gupta period located at Bhitargaon, Kanpur district in Uttar Pradesh.

The Gollatha Gullu, near the is a unique temple and stands amid an empty space with a wall around it and a locked gate. Built entirely of bricks, this temple stands as a model for brick technology of the time, according to ancient texts.

A familiar blue board lets us know that it is under the protection of the archaeology department, but it is obviously not on the tourist track because there is no way to enter.


There were four vertical storeys, where the bricks were made of burnt clay. This Jaina temple was built between 7th and 8th century and has been exposed to the vagaries of nature.

Large size bricks have been used to build the temple in old style, plastered with limestone. Since the bricks were glazed, it could not be held together.

The principal deity of this temple was Lord Mahavira. Some sculptures of Mahavira, Parsvanatha and a few other statues of historical importance are kept at a local museum in Pillalamarri and some at a museum in Hyderabad. This is apart from the headless statue of Lord Mahavira at this temple.

https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/in-other-news/300918/the-last-of-the-2-brick-temples.html

Read More

Rock art of Telangana

Rock art is a form of landscape art that includes designs that have been placed on boulder and cliff faces, cave walls and ceilings, and on the ground surface.

Petroglyphs are rock carvings (rock paintings are called pictographs) made by pecking directly on the rock surface using a stone chisel and a hammerstone. 

Of all the questions with regard to rock art the most problematic is its dating. For the relative dating of rock art the following aspects are taken into consideration. 

They are: 1. Thematic content 2. Superimposition 3. State of preservation 4. Colour scheme 5. Archaeological evidence.

1. Thematic content
The thematic content in the rock art of Telangana mainly consists of animal figures such as deer species, humped bull (Bos indicus), hare, rabbit , mangoose, porcupine, dog, tiger etc., and birds such as peacock, human and anthropomorphic figures, hand prints and geometric figures.

The thematic content of the paintings and also the petroglyphs, is useful for understanding their chronological position. 

Mesolithic / Middle Stone Age: Hunting gathering phase
Deer and associated human figures. All the animal figures are of wild life and none domesticated. Human figures are shown in isolation, never as hunter. The deer figures are drawn naturalistically. All the paintings are in red colour. No petroglyphs are found in this phase

Paintings of the deer figures occur in the earliest phase of the rock art data in Telangana. Besides deer figures other wild animals such as hare, rabbit, mangoose, porcupine, birds etc., human and anthropomorphic figures occupy the next place. None of the animals in the first phase of painting activity are domesticated. The animals are painted, realistically and often at higher reaches of the rock shelter wall. 

Neolithic : Food producing phase 

Humped bull figures and associated schematic deer figures. In the humped bull paintings phase there were no wild animals, where ever they occur they are schematic or stylised but never realistic as in the case of the first phase of rock paintings

Domestication of animals such as bull and dog. Petroglyphs make their appearance in which also humped bull figures predominate. The anthropomorphic figures are less in number compared to the previous phase along with geometric symbols. Human figures with bows and arrows appear in this phase.

Megalithic / Iron Age : Metal using phase 

The horse and horse riding and fighting human figures with swords and shields, bow and arrow indicate the emergence of iron tool technology associated with huge burial monuments of the megalithic. This iron age art is almost exclusively petroglyphic in content.

Horses, iron tools of offensive nature such as swords, lances, shields, bows and arrows, human figures brandshing these weapons, in praying posture before geometric symbol etc. Both petroglyphs and pictographs display these themes. The colours used in the paintings are white, red and black in that order of preference. Narrative scenes are the characteristic feature of this phase.

Historical phase
Horses, elephants, warriors, humans riding the animals, painted inscriptions, religious symbols, signify the historical phase of painting activity. Animal figures as well as human and anthropomorphic figures are very schematic. In the advanced phase of historical paintings scenes of Mahabharata, Brahmi and Kannada inscriptions occur. 

Thus, on the basis of thematic content of the paintings 4 phases of painting and art activity can be delineated

2. Superimpositions and state of preservation
This criteria is also useful for categorizing the rock art phases. This criteria can be used to corrobarate the phases made out on the basis of the thematic content. The basic premise, in considering the superimposition for answering the question of chronology, is that if two paintings are superimposed one over the other, the one in the lowest position indicate that it is earlier than the painting superimposing it. However, the gap between there two paintings in terms of age, can only be indicated relatively. The state of preservation of the superimposed painting can be of some utility. If the superimposed painting is faded and the superimposing one is fresh, then it can be said that the superimposed painted figure is relatively older than superimposing one. If the thematic content also varies in the superimpositions, then it can be
safely identified their relative antiquity in terms of prehistoric phases. The basic premise again in considering the state of preservation in the question of chronology is that when the paintings in a rock shelter are exposed to the ravages of nature uniformly, their state of preservation must also be uniform. In the paintings if same figures are fresh in condition and some are faded then this state of preservation must indicate their relative age.

3. Colour schemes
Some times the colour scheme of the paintings will also be useful in identifying the age of the rock paintings. In the paintings depicting the hunting gathering economy of the authors, only the red colour is used. In the paintings of the food producing economy also red colour is used in majority of the cases. Occasionally white colour is also utilized. In the metal using culture phase, the paintings are done in white, red and black in that order of preference.

4. Archaeological evidences
Circumstancial archaeological evidence from the surface, in and around the rock art site or within the rock shelters is useful to arrive at a relative dating of the rock art phases. This evidence however, is useful as a corroborative to the classification made on the basis of themes, colour schemes state of preservation and superimpositions.

Thus for dating the rock art of any region in India, the above criteria are used by the scholars. 

Let us now turn to the rock art of Telangana. An attempt will now be made to date the
various phases of rock art from various sites. 

The classification of the rock art phases has already been done while discussing the rock art themes of individual sites.

Previously known 17 known rock art sites in Telangana.

They are Bollavaram, Dupadugattu, Dongala gattu tanda, Jupalle Mudumula and Sanganonipalli in

Mahaboobnagar district, 

Edthanur, Sivaru , Ramachandrapuram and Wargal in Medak district

Budigapalli, Regonda, Rekonda, and Ramagundam in Karimnagar district; 

Ramachandrapuram in Khammam district, 

Kokapet in Ranga Reddy district;

Pandavula gutta in Jayashankar Bhupalpally.

Paleolithic Stone Age rock art 

Paleolithic Rock art paintings have been found at Pandavula gutta (Regonda mandal) and Narsapur (Tadvai mandal) in the Jayashankar Bhupalpally district.

In a significant discovery, new evidence of upper palaeolithic age rock art has been found in Rachakonda.A huge boulder in the shape of heart has been found on the north bank of Bayati Cheruvu (Anapota Samudram) inside the West gate of Rachakona Fort. The tool, chiselled in black basalt stone, seems to have been used as a hand axe and chopper by nomadic people. The age of such tool users in Telugu states is 50,000 BCE to 12,500 BCE.

In a rare discovery, historians have uncovered rock art that is believed to have originated in the Paleolithic age in Telangana's Nallamudi in Jagannadhapuram of Bhadradri-Kothagudem district.

The art pieces were found at the feet of Ontigundu in the lime-stone hills near a place of worship of the Naikpods, an Adivasi community. Members of the team included the Telangana Jagruthi history wing, Rock Art Society of India (RASI), rock art enthusiast Kondaveeti Gopi and scientist K Gnaneshwar.

According to history enthusiasts, the site also has certain rock art with white coloured-edges.
Haragopal said that though rock art forms found recently across Telangana are similar to the latest findings, the Ontigundu findings hail from mid-Paleolithic age to late-upper Paleolithic age.

New Telangana History Group (NTHG), which is looking for hidden art treasures, which could back to the palaeolithic age, has found rock art at Fakkeeroni mitta near Medikonda village in Jogulamba Gadwal district.
Rock art comprises images of tigers, human shapes, and wild animals. The expression of the artist clearly depicts the depth of his understanding of the mechanics of this art form.

Though such images were identified earlier in rock art found in Pandavula gutta, Goparajapalli, Hastalapur, Vatti Malla, the Medikonda rock art is different, Reddy said. ‘A man hunting the tiger’ is a distinctive one as it was not found elsewhere in Telangana state so far, he said.

In 2014, when Telangana state was formed, there were only 18 places where rock art was found. Now the number of rock shelters has gone up to 60, Reddy said. Of them, 18 were discovered by the archaeology department and 16 by others, while the New Telangana History Group has found 26 to date.

Mesolithic Middle Stone Age rock art
The mesolithic rock art is found both in a single culture as well as multi culture contexts. Sanganonipalli and pandavula gutta sites are exclusive mesolithic rock art sites, while at Budigapalli and Dupadugattu mesolithic rock paintings occur along with rock paintings of other culture phases.

Kasipeta Rock art in Yadadri Bhuvanagiri district
A prehistoric rock shelter with rock paintings from the Mesolithic age, megalithic burials and microliths have been found on a small hillock near Kasipet hamlet of Yavapur gram panchayat in Bommalaramaram mandal in Yadadri Bhuvanagiri district. The explorers found microliths (stone tools) from the Mesolithic period at another location of the hillock. A continuation of civilisation was seen here, as cairns, cists and a menhir, which are forms of Megalithic burials, were also found at the site. 

“The hillock is about 30 feet tall and we identified many red ochre colour paintings on the inner side. On the other hand, many paintings were erased as locals applied lime coating on them as part of worship. The human figure standing behind four bison was drawn using an X pattern. The other human figure painting is similar to the petroglyph of a man with a weapon at the Regonda site,” said Sriramoju Haragopal, convener of Kotha Telangana Charitra Brundam.

A prehistoric rock painting of animals and men were spotted at Pyararam village in Bommalaramaram mandal in Yadadri-Bhongir district. The team noticed occurrences of Mesolithic stone tools and Neolithic grooves in the close proximity of the site. The rock shelter was also depicted with a full figure of a lady carrying something on her head belonging to the early historic period and two human couples engaged in erotic postures datable to the medieval period 15th-16th Centuries. The fresh evidence clearly revealed that the rock shelter continued to be habitable right from the Mesolithic times to the medieval period, he added.

An ancient rock art site dating back to the mesolithic era was discovered at Ramappagutta, a hillock located close to Nampally town in the Rajanna-Sircilla. Estimated to be at least 10,000 years old, this rock art having paintings of two snakes, three tortoises, human figures and grass was found by A Karunakar and Joel of the KTCB.

Similar discoveries were made at Kukunoorpally and Thimmareddipally villages in Siddipet district in the past, where the rock art sites were located atop the hillocks, whereas the site found in Wargal near Gajwel is located close to the base of the hillock, which is a neolithic rock art site. In the past, inside a cave at the base of a hillock in Vattimalla village of Konaraopet mandal in Sircilla, paintings of a tiger and other figures were discovered.

In a fresh find, pre-historic rock paintings belonging to the Mesolithic period were discovered on the banks of the Krishna river on the Telangana side. The uniquely styled rock paintings are located in Patha Kisthapuram, a village that will be submerged by the Pulichintala projects in Mellacheruvu mandal of Nalgonda district.

A 2,000-year-old port was also found near the fort where ships used to anchor. Of the nine forts believed to be from either the Sathavahana, Ikshavakula or Rashtrakuta period, only one has been explored so far by archaeologists.

These are some of the rare rock paintings. Similar paintings are found in Hastalpur. Some of the paintings are of bulls. Going by the depiction of bulls with horns and reproductive organs. They could be from the Chalcolithic age," he said. This refers to a period between 3500 and 1700 BC.

Neolithic Copper Age Rock art (Chalcolithic period) - 4000 BCE to 1750 BCE

The neolithic rock art is found in two sites, Budigapalli in the Husnabad Mandal in Siddipet district and Dupadugattu in the Kodangal taluk of Mahaboobnagar district. The neolithic rock art at these sites is characterised by humped bulls, the hall mark the neolithic art both petroglyphic and pictographic of South India as a whole. At Budigapalli a humped bull is very realistically drawn in flat wash along with some geometric symbols and human figures datable to succeeding culture periods. In view of the state of preservation of this humped bull figures it can be dated to the neolithic period.

Kotha Telangana Charitra Brundam discovered Copper Age rock paintings near Nandipet village in Mahabubnagar district. On a small hillock a few kilometers away from the village, images of a leopard opposite to a bow-clad hunter, a deer with long horns, and a long-tailed animal were found painted. These are similar to rock art in Kokapet, Ranagareddy district.

A group exploring Moosapet suburb, which is part of Greater Hyderabad in Mahaboobnagar district of Telangana for developing the hill as a spiritual centre and tourist spot, has made a startling discovery. They came across a rock bruising of a bull which dates back to the early phase of the Neolithic period.

The team was surveying the area to prepare a masterplan for development of the entire hill as a spiritual centre, an ecotourism spot and heritage tourism destination.

Members of the Kotha Telangana Charitra Brundam made the discovery of two neolithic celts (small axes) under the Tortoise Rock formation which is now a traffic island near BNR Hills in Hyderabad. “We were looking for prehistoric rock art in the form of paintings or sketches but noticed two stone axes on the floor of the natural shelter. The axes measure 12.0x7.2x2.1 cms and 9.2x3.9x2.2 cms in length, width, and thickness respectively,” informed archaeologist E. Sivanagi Reddy.

Megalithic Iron Age : Metal using phase 

Explorers also found dozens of dolmens (burial sites) on the the surface of Gajjelonigutta near Nandipet village in Mahabubnagar district in damaged state. Dolmens belongs to (Megalithic) Iron Age.

A team of historians and archaeologists from the Kotha Telangana Charitra Brundam (KTCB) identified prehistoric paintings on the rock of Burka Gutta at a cave in the Sircilla district. The lizard and anthropomorphic images found here are comparable to those found in Ontigundu. In the square, the scorpion, the two lower circles, and triangles appear to be a stage and a human figure with raised arms. Circles, triangles and vertical and horizontal lines are inward – showing a foot pattern with six limbs. There were two dogs and some discolored and unrecognisable images,” he added.

The rock art expert Bandi Muralidhar Reddy, advisor of the history group, opined that the paintings belong to the megalithic era.

Neolithic Age rock art

A new prehistoric rock art site has been discovered in Medikonda village of Jogulamba Gadwal district, inside a cave located atop a hillock, at a height of around 240 metres.

The rock arts depict images of a large tiger-like animal, a stag with antlers, a small mouse deer-like animal, a hunting scene and two humans standing beside each other.

The discovery was reported by a government school teacher Hanumannagiri Vemareddy, along with his friends T Padmareddy and S Hanmatareddy, all of whom are members of the collective Kottha Telangana Charitram (KTC). KTC members say the rock art is from the pre-neolithic period and is a rare kind of site among the sites found until now.

A neolithic era rock art site atop a hillock near Pothireddipally village of Yellareddipet mandal in Rajanna-Sircilla district has been discovered by an archaeology enthusiast. Sadasivananda, a member of Kotha Telangana Charithra Brundam (KTCB), has discovered the rock-art 5 km from the village atop a hillock locally called ‘Sithari Gattu Maisamma Gutta.’

The pictures were painted on the base of a huge boulder called ‘Padigerayi’ covering a canvas area measuring 6 ft in height and 10 ft in width.

Nine designs were painted on the boulder, with each pattern having inner circles and what appears to look like rays on the outer and inner sides of the designs of a circular pattern. Locals from Tenugu (Mudiraju) community have been offering prayers to this rock art, treating it as their deity ‘Maisamma’.

Read More

Hero Stones or Veeragallu of Telangana

Hero stones, also known as Veeragallu, are a type of memorial stone that are commonly found in the Telugu region of India. They are typically erected in memory of a brave warrior or hero who died in battle or while defending their community.

The history of hero stones in the Telugu region can be traced back to the early medieval period, with the earliest known examples dating back to the 5th century CE. These early hero stones were primarily made of granite and were typically adorned with intricate carvings and inscriptions detailing the deeds and accomplishments of the person being honored.Over time, the tradition of erecting hero stones spread throughout the Telugu region and became a common practice among various communities. The inscriptions on these stones were usually in the form of poetry, and many of them are considered to be important historical records of the culture and society of the time.In addition to honoring warriors and heroes, hero stones were also used to commemorate important events and figures in local history, such as kings, queens, and other important leaders.Today, hero stones continue to be an important part of the cultural heritage of the Telugu region and are protected and preserved by the government and local communities. They are considered to be an important source of information on the history, culture, and society of the region.

A veeragallu (sculpture of a local hero who fought for the village) recovered in Jangrai village of Medak district.

In a rare discovery, the sculpture of a hunting Veeragallu, suspected to be from the 10th-11th Century AD was found at a mining site at Velchal village of Mominpet Mandal in Vikarabad district. Apart from the rare sculpture, a small cave on the top of the hillock, suspected to have been carved out between the 1st and 5th Century AD, was also discovered.

Historians have discovered a rare ‘Veeragallu’ (warrior’s sculpture), who appears to have died in a battle with rivals while protecting a herd of cows, at Kohir in Sangareddy district recently.The sculpture probably belonged to 12th century AD when Kalyana Chalukyas ruled these parts of the State. The sculpture was skillfully engraved on a black stone. The hero, seen riding a horse, was attacking a rival’s horse with a sword while holding a bow in another hand. This depicted that he had fought many persons in the battle single-handedly and died at the hands of the rivals.

Veeragallu, unearthed during Mission Kakatiya works in Ande near Siddipet. One of the inscription says that Veeragallu was killed by the local king.

A rare sculpture depicting Sati Sahagamana made of stone dating back to the Kalyani Chalukyan era in the 10th century CE was found among the ruins of the abandoned habitation of Dommata village, Cheriyal mandal, Siddipet district.

Sculptures of Veeragallu or warriors can be found in many villages across the State. In some sculptures, Satisheela, wife of the warrior, has been found alongside as well. However, what differentiates them from the sculpture found in Dommata is the pose of the royal couple.

While a similar sculpture of Veeragallu was found at Akunuru village located close to Dommata in the past, the turban knot differentiated between the two warriors who were probably from different periods, observed K Srinivas, Member of Kotha Telangana Charithra Brundam, who discovered the sculpture.

Six hero stones (Veeragallu) were found in the vicinity of Golaki temple behind Gollattagudi in Alwanpalli, a suburb of Gangapur, Jadcherla mandal in Mahabubnagar district

Read More

Mudumal Menhirs or Niluvu Rallu

Mudumal Niluvu Raallu are an arrangement of menhirs that dates back to 5000 BC located in Mudumal village, Krishna Mandal, Narayanpet district of Telangana State, India. 

Spread across nearly 89 acres, there are close to 80 tall menhirs of 10 to 14 feet height, accompanied by nearly 3,000 alignment stones. Historians and archeologists believe as the only megalithic site in India, where a depiction of star constellation has been identified.

This site has three kinds of burial set-ups which indicate presence of a social division and the practice of revering the departed souls.

The Menhirs also offer insight into how observant and scientific the community was as the Menhirs appear to be tracking the sun’s movement. Based on the kind of shadow cast and based on the location of the sun at sunrise the people in those days might have determined seasons and planned agriculture activities.

Experts have found an inscription of the Ursa Major constellation on a flat rock here. “This is the only depiction of the night sky from the megalithic ages in South-East Asia. It is interesting that they chose to depict the Ursa Major constellation, as two stars in this constellation – Dubhe and Merak – can help identify the North Star and indicate the north direction. This indicates that people in the region had figured out "North direction" using the north star and began voyaging outside their habitat.

The inscriptions on the rocks are in the form of a series of cup markings with each cup denoting a star in the constellation. The marking was possibly done using a stick and sand.

There is a huge microlithic site in the fields to the south of the village on the bank of river Krishna, on an elevated ground. The site extending over an area of roughly one acre is a huge workshop site. The raw materials are chert, chalcedony, jasper, agate, carnelian and quartz. Many fluted cores are noticed but the finished tool component is meager.

To the west of the village, towards the Raichur road, 4 megalithic cairn circles were noticed. On two of the stone boulders of the stone circle the ‘circle – with a – trident’ symbol is found engraved. Still further, to the west of the village there is a vast complex of megalithic stone circles, menhirs and stone alignments. There is also a huge habitation mound. Parts of the mound are under dry cultivation. The pottery from the surface of the mound included coarse red ware, black ware, black and red ware and grey ware of the wheel made variety. Bangle pieces of shell and steatite also occur in the surface collection along with large quantities of iron slag. Despite the dry cultivation, the habitation mound of 2.5 m thickness remains largely undisturbed

The local farmers informed that during the excavation of an irrigational channel which party cut the habitation mound, several pots containing bones along with iron objects were encountered. These could be megalithic urn burials. The megalithis at Mudumula are locally known as ‘Banthi – rallu’ (ball – like stones) and ‘Niluvu rallu’ (standing stones). These standing stones are blocks of stone of 4 to 6 m height are without any chisel marks. They must have been quarried by means of fire setting. The huge blocks of stone are arranged in a circular fashion, similar to the stonehenge of Great Britain. Some of them have fallen down. They weigh around 3 tonnes apiece.

The habitation mound must be a multiculture one ranging from neolithic to megalithic.

Theme of the Rock art
The rock art at this site is very little comprising mainly of a couple of bruisings and engravings on the boundary stones of the megalithic stone circles and adjacent rock boulders and a couple of faint black paintings in are rock shelter. In addition to the bruisings of ‘circle – with a trident’ symbol, Krishna Sastry (1983 : 47) reported some more bruisings and engravings. One of them is mother goddess figure. The figure has out stretched and upraised hands and the legs are shown apart. The breasts are shown hanging sideways. There is one crudely incised humped bull with an upraised tail, the horns curving forward and genitals prominently shown. In addition to these there are 5 more symbols of ‘circle – with a – trident’ in different shapes and sizes. I could not locate these engravings and bruisings described by Sastry (1983 : 47).

The paintings are located in the midst of a rock out crop situated in a tank locally known as ‘yellamma cheruvu gundlu’ (Yellamma tank boulders). The rock shelter is a flat rock out crop that provides no shaded area. The rock is of coarse grained sand stone of brownish grey colour, and contain fragmentary paintings in black colour. The site is located about 2 km north east of the village.

The paintings include a schematic animal figure in outline portion of the head is in flatwash, another animal figure in flatwash with a long neck, a circle – with a – trident symbol partly visible and some other faint traces of thick lines.

This rock shelter is being worshipped in the name of local village goddess ‘Maisamma’. The village perform rituals here praying for rains. They also sacrifice fowls and sheep.

The rock art of Mudumula can safely be dated to the megalithic period. The petroglyphs as also the pictographs revealed characteristic traits of the megalithic rock art in Telangana. Further, the ‘circle – with a – trident’ symbol occur on the megalithic burials themselves, a feature noticed at other sites such as Chagatur in the same district, an evidence which is clinching to date the rock art of Mudumula to the megalithic period.

Sundeep Mukhta, Founder of Jai Makthala Trust, who has been building a campaign to get a UNESCO Heritage tag for the site, felt the purpose of these stones are to capture the movement of the sun to estimate the time.

About 500 meters away, there is another site comprising mounds of boulders and stones. Believed to be a burial ground, the site also comprises a three-foot rectangular stone, which has a ‘sky chart’ chiselled on it. “Perhaps, they identified and located constellations and astronomical objects using the chart,” he said.

The menhirs were arranged in several rows, form alignments and avenues. Studies found that particular rows of menhirs are aligned to the position of the rising and setting sun on the summer solstice and equinox,” said Mukhta. To promote the site, the Trust has been organising tours, bringing students and teachers from nearby schools. A team from the Sejong University (South Korea), too, visited the site recently.

The menhirs, which used to be present in an extent of 80 acres until a few decades ago, exist now only in a few acres as the bulk of them were ravaged to make way for farming. The Telangana government has said work towards preservation of the site is on. “We have sanctioned ₹25 lakh and acquired 4.29 acres of land where the last of the menhirs are concentrated,” V Srinivas Goud, the State Minister for Tourism, Culture and Archaeology, said.

Though the menhir side of the site is acquired by the government, the mounds of boulders and the pillar with ‘sky chart’ continues to be in an unprotected area and exposed to vandalism or unintended damage due to land clearing. Goud said the process was on to get the said land transferred from the Revenue department.

The stones are of two types - one is sisth, which are surrounded by big rocks, and the other is menhirs. "While the big rocks tower at a height of 10-14 ft, the small ones stand 5-6 ft high. The menhirs are scattered all over. One side of stones is worshipped as 'Thimmappa,' a male deity of the village. Nearby a smaller menhir in black stone is worshipped as Yellama the female deity.

Telangana government proposed to recommend the site for a Unesco World Heritage tag

https://www.academia.edu/29875866/Rock_art_of_Telangana_pdf

https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/aeons-ago-these-rocks-were-clock-compass-calendar/articleshow/101056924.cms?from=mdr

http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/100023798.cms?from=mdr&utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst

https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/variety/mysterious-megalithic-era-menhirs-of-telangana-seek-global-attention/article65539795.ece

Read More

Turquoise Throne of Warangal

The Turquoise Throne (Telugu: Vaiḍhurya simhasanam) was originally covered with an gold and turquoise enamel was a famous jewel-studded throne of Warangal which became royal throne Takht-i-Firoza (Hindustani: Takht-e-firoza) of the Bahmani Sultans of Deccan in India. 

March 23, 1363 : Warangal goldsmiths had a reputation for jewellery making. It was a gift by Musunuri Kapaya Nayaka, then king of Warangal. Over a period of time, this throne became one of the most important icons of the Bahmani royalty and heritage

Telangana region was liberated by Musunuri Nayaks in the early 1330s. Nearly after three decades, the King of Telangana (or Warangal) Kapaya Nayaka came up with a proposal that caught the imagination of the Bahmani sultan. Kapaya Nayaka agreed to present the Bahmani with such a wonderful gift that is worthy only to be offered to a great king if they accept a truce and fix a frontier between the two kingdoms. This came after Nagadeva, son of Kapaya Nayaka was brutally killed aftermath of a war with the Bahmani Sultanate. Kapaya Nayaka also gave an undertaking that he would not ally with the newly founded Hindu Vijayanagara empire in the south.

That treaty between the Bahamani sultanate and Telangana kingdom occurred at Kaulas and Golconda was fixed as the frontier between the two.The throne was packed in a large wooden box at Warangal and was concealed so that its contents remain unknown until it is presented to the Sultan Mohammed Shah I at Gulbarga.

When ascending the new throne, Sultan named it taxt-i-fīrozā due to the color of the enamel work and predominant precious stones. Firishta mentioned that Sultan first sat on the new throne on Nowruz, the Persian new year following the autumnal solstice in 764 AH. After this truce, Kapaya Nayaka had peace with the Bahmani Sultans. He was however faced with rebellions from other Telugu chieftains, eventually getting killed in battle at Bheemaram in 1368 CE

In the reign of Mahmud Shah (1482-1518), the same authority also informs us, jewellers were called in for estimation, and they valued the throne at one crore gold coins (huns).

The Takht-i Firuza was worth one crore gold huns.

Weight of a single gold hun = 3.5 grams

1 crore gold huns would therefore have weighed 35,000 kilograms of gold.

1 kilogram gold costs today approximately 4.8 million rupees.

So the cost of 35,000 kilograms of gold today = 168 billion rupees

So if the Takht-i Firuza had existed today, it would have had a value of a whacking 16,800 crore rupees!

Even after taking into consideration the exaggeration common in medieval chronicles, the figure is still simply mind-boggling!

Read More

Bahmani Kingdom

1350 AD – 1518 AD : Bahmani Sultanate / Kingdom (1347 AD - 1527 AD)
Founder : Zafar Khan or Hasan Gangu or Allauddin Hassan or Ala-ud-Din Bahman ShahCapitals : Kalaburgi /Aḥsanabad now Gulbarga (1347–1425), Muhammadabad now Bidar (1425–1527)
Religion: Sunni Islam
Languages : Persian, Marathi, Deccani Urdu, Telugu, Kannada

Hassan Gangu founded the Bahmani Kingdom. Allauddin Hassan was born in 1290 A.D. into the noble family of Ghor. Political turmoils ruined the family, which forced him to go to Multan. From Multan he came to Delhi where on the banks of the Yamuna he was met by a brahmin astrologer, Gango Pandit, who invited him to be his guest. Gango Pandit,to support Hassan gave him a piece of land, a pair of oxen and two labourers to assist him. While working in the fields one day, Hassan discovered a treasure and informed the Pandit immediately,. The Pandit, a royal astrologer, who was close to Mohammed Bin Tughlak,the heir prince,was impressed by Hassan’s honesty and informed him about this incident. Tughlak, in turn, informed his father, the king, Ghyas Uddin Tughlak (1320−1325 A.D.). The king immediately made him an officer, putting him in charge of one-hundred horses

Hassan adapted Gango’s name out of gratefulness since the Pandit supported him in his hard times.Their friendship continued and turned out to be a legend in the history of Hindu- Muslim relationship.In 1339, Zafar Khan participated in an uprising against the Tughluqs. This turned out unsuccessful; he and his allies were exiled to Afghanistan the same year.

1346 : He managed to return to the Deccan, and in 1346 he participated in a siege of Gulbarga, at the time under Tughluq control. The siege proved successful. He was made a governor. Zafar Khan rose to power during the Rebellion of Ismail Mukh

In 1347 he was made commander of an army in Daulatabad. On 3 August 1347, the Afghan noble Nasir-ud-Din Ismail Shah, also known as Ismail Mukh, whom the rebel amirs of the Deccan placed on the throne of Daulatabad in 1345 and abdicated in favor of Zafar Khan, resulting the establishment of the Bahmani Kingdom with its headquarters at Hasanabad (Gulbarga)

He gave Ismail Mukh a jagir near Jamkhandi and later conferred to him the highest title of his kingdom, Amir-ul-Umara. But Narayana, a local Hindu chieftain still succeeded in turning Ismail against Bahman Shah for a short period before he poisoned Ismail.

1350 - Feb 11, 1358 A.D : Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah (Aug 3, 1347 to Feb 11, 1358)The new King ruled from Friday Aug 3, 1347 to Feb 11, 1358, who was crowned in the mosque of Qtub-ud-din Mubarak Shah Khalji at Daulatabad. According to one historian Hasan was the nephew of Malik Hizhbar-ud-din entitled Zafar Khan' Alai, who was killed in 1298 AD when Hasan was only 6 years old.
The first act of the new king was to transfer his title of Zafar Khan to prince Muhammad. King adopted the title of Bahman. He sent Qutbul Mulk who conquered Kotgir, Maram, Mahendri and Akkal Kot. Qir Khan was sent to conquer Kalyan. After the news of this great victory of Kalyan, King renamed Daulatabad to Fatahabad.
Sikandar was send to Malkher which was held by the Hindu Zamindars who opposed first but subdued later. Quir Khan revolted and was beheaded by the king. King renamed Gulbarga as Ahsanabad and made it the capital of Deccan.

1350 : Bahman Shah led his first campaign against Warangal in 1350 and forced its ruler Kapaya Nayaka to cede to him the fortress of Kaulas, who entered into treaty and became friend of Sikandar and loyal to the King.

His kingdom was divided into four provinces and he appointed a governor for each province. During his reign Hasan fought many wars with Vijayanagara. By the time of his death the kingdom stretched from north to south from the Wainganga River to Krishna and east to west from Bhongir to Daulatabad.

The King died on Rabi-ul-awwal 1, Feb 11, 1358 at the age of 67.

11th February 1358 to 21st April 1375 A.D : Muhammad Shah-I

He is better known as organizer of Bahmani Kingdom and founder of its institutions.

March 23, 1363 : His attack on Warangal in 1363 brought him a large indemnity, including the important fortress of Golkonda and his Silver throne from his father was replaced by the magnificent Takht-e-Firoza (Turquoise Throne) presented by Kapaya Nayak, which thereafter became the throne of the Bahmani kings.

In 1367, Bukka Raya I of Vijayanagara sacked the Mudkal fortress in the Tungabhadra doab. As revenge for this, the then Bahmani sultan, Mohammad Shah-I crossed the river and marched into Vijayanagara territories for the first time.

This was the first battle in India on records where both sides used artillery.
Long-drawn war with no result made them agree to a treaty to restore the old position of sharing the Tungabhadra doab. It was agreed that since both kingdoms would remain neighbors for a long period of time, they’ll avoid cruelty in war henceforth. In future wars, helpless and unarmed civilians were not to be slaughtered. This accord made warfare in southern India less inhumane.

The Bahmani sultanate entered into a treaty with Warangal as well.The Bahmani boundary was fixed at Golconda and did not encroach into Warangal territories.

This treaty lasted for 50 years and stopped the advance of Vijayanagara as well.

He constructed Jama Masjid in Gulbarga Fort and Shah Bazaar Masjid in Gulbarga town. Muhammad Shah-I died in April 21, 1375 AD from drinking too much.

21st April 1375 - 16th April 1378 A.D : Mujahid Shah
Mujahid Shah Bahmani ruled from was the 3rd Sultan of the Bahmani sultanate. He was the son of Mohammed Shah I. Unlike his predecessors Mujahid only had a reign of 3 years as he was assassinated by his cousin Dawood Shah Bahmani after his unsuccessful campaign to Vijayanagara.

Practically the whole of Mujahid's reign was concentrated on the campaign to Vijayanagar.On 17 April 1378, The King reached the fort of Mudgal and crossed the Krishna for a fishing expedition, then the stage was set for the worst. Masud Khan, Son of Mubarak the royal betel leaf bearer whom Mujahid broke his collar bone when he was a crown prince and Daud Khan, whom the king reprimanded for his negligence towards his position during the military campaign conspired to kill him and on that day they assassinated him in his tent and Daud himself ascended the throne after his death.

April 16, 1378 - May 21, 1378 AD : Daud Shah I
Immediately on Mujahid's murder Daud Shah proclaimed king of Deccan and all those present paid homage to him. It is said that Ruh Parwar Agha (Mujahid's sister) got Daud murdered through a royal slave Bakah while he was attending Friday prayer on 22nd of Muharram, 780 AH in great mosque of Gulbarga Fort.

May 21, 1378 - April 20, 1397 A.D : Muhammad Shah-llRuh Parwar after taking revenge of her brother's death, blinded Sanjar ( S/o Daud I ). She put Muhammad II brother of Daud I on throne.

Muhammad Shah II's 19 year reign was one of the most peaceful period in the whole Bahmani history. Since he had no son so he adopted two sons Firoz Shah and Ahmad I of his uncle Ahmad Khan s/o Bahman Shah. But after the birth of Tahmatan Shah, Muhammad on his death bed wished that Ghiyasuddin Tahmatan Shah should succeed him and Firoz and Ahmad should pay homage to him.

He tried to put a stop to hostilities with his neighbours, the Raya of Vijayanagar, who, however, took advantage of the political troubles and consolidated his authority on the western coast including Goa. Muhammad married his two daughters to the two sons Firuz and Ahmad of his predecessor Daud.

Muhammad was essentially a man of culture. He patronized art and literature. He was himself a scholar of Persian and Arabic and many poets from Persia and Arabia flocked to his court. He established several schools for the education of the poor and the orphan.

They were spread all over Deccan particularly in the cities of Gulbarga, Bidar, Khandhar, Elichpur, Daulatabad, Choul and Dabul. He looked after the welfare of his subjects and when there was a famine in his kingdom he imported grain from Gujarat and Malwa.

Muhammad died of typhoid on 21th April 1397 A.D

April 20, 1397 - June 14, 1397 AD : GHIYAS-UD-DIN TAHMATAN SHAH
Muhammad's elder son Ghiyas-ud-din Tahmatan Shah succeeded to the throne without any trouble. Taghalchin ( Turkish slave ) who wanted to be the Prime Minister arranged a big feast at which king was also invited. Taghalchin blinded the king on 17th Ramadan, 799 AH and imprisoned him at Sagar and his step brother Shams-ud-din Daud II was put on the throne.

June 14, 1397 AD - Nov 15, 1397 AD : SHAMS-UD-DIN DAUD SHAH II
The first thing the boy king was made to do was to promote Taghalchin to be the Malik Naib and Mir Jumla of the kingdom. The manumitted slave girl who was Shamsuddin's mother was now raised to the rank and title of Makhduma-i-Jahan (Dowager Queen).

Taghalchin tried to persuade Shamsuddin to imprison Firoz and Ahmad and asked king's mother to have them done to death. On hearing of the conspiracy the two brothers fled to Sagar. Firoz proclaimed himself king making his younger brother Ahmad Khan Amir-ul-umra, Mir Fazlil-lah Inju Wakil (Prime Minister). He had the blind boy Ghiyasuddin Tahmatan with him. He directly attacked into the Darbar Hall Taghalchin and his son was killed Daud II was blinded and allowed to move Mecca with his mother on 23rd Safar, 800 AH. Shamsuddin Daud II died in 816 AH / 1414 AD at Mecca.

Nov 16, 1397 - Sep 22, 1422 A.D : Feroz Shah Bahmani or TAJ-UD-DIN FIROZ SHAH
Firoz Shah was one of the most learned of Indian sovereigns. He was a good calligrapher and poet (poetic name Uruji or Firozi). Among other public works he under took the construction of an Observatory on the chain of hills near Daulatabad called Balaghat in 810 which could not be completed due to his death.

He tamed prince Bukka and Harihara of Vijayanagar and Narasingha of Kherla in battle.
Firoz's army tried to kill Ahmad Khan ( brother of Firoz ) but defeated in battle fought cleverly by Ahmad. Gates of the city was opened for Ahmad on 5th of Shawwal, 825 AH and he was taken to dying king Firoz. Firoz died on 11th of Shawwal, 825 AH / Sep 28, 1422.

1407 : Defeated the Vijayanagar ruler Deva Raya I (1406-22) in 1407. He had to give his daughter in marriage to Firoz Shah.

Sep 22, 1422 - Apr 17, 1436 A.D : Ahmad Shah I or SHIHAB-UD-DIN AHMAD I
1429 : In the year 1429 Ahmed Shah al wali shifted capital city from Gulbarga to Bidar.At the begening of his reign he suffered the shock of the death of Hazrat Khwaja Syed Muhammad Gesu Draz. He decided and shifted his capital from Gulbarga to Bidar between 827-830 AH. He made Khalaf Hasan Basri as his Wakil-e-Saltanate (Prime Minister).
He constructed the Tomb of Gesu Daraz at Gulbarga any buidings at Bidar.
Ahmad Shah attacked Vijayanagar and over powered Vijayaraya I.

In the last year of his reign he appointed his eldest son Ala-ud-din Zafar Khan to be his heir, giving him the full charge of kingdom.

King died on 29th of Ramadan, 839 AH after a short ilness.

Apr 17, 1436 - May 6, 1458 : Ahmad Shah II or ALA-UD-DIN AHMAD II
Ahmad I had been very successful as a king and when he died he was popular even to the extent of being regarded as a saint. His son Zafar Khan who asumed the title of Ahmad on his accession.
He gave preference to newcomers from outside over the old in his cabinet. This created a great cleavage between them and the Dakhnis (old comers).
He married the daughter of Raja of Sangmeswar and gave her the title of Zeba Chehra apart from the daughter of Nasir Khan Faruqi of Khandesh Agha Zainab.
There became two party, aparently the old-comers and the new-comers.
King died early due to his wound in his shin (front of lower leg)

May 7, 1458 - Sep 4, 1461 A.D : ALA-UD-DIN HUMAYUN SHAH S/o Ahmad Shah II
Humayun was the eldest son of Alau'd-din Ahmad Shah. Upon Alauddin's death, a group of noblemen, including Saif Khan, Mallu Khan, and Shah Habibullah installed Hasan Khan, Humayun's younger brother as king. Humayun, along with his personal guard of eighty horsemen managed to secure the throne. Saif Khan was executed, Mallu Khan fled to the Carnatic, and Hasan Khan and Shah Habibullah were imprisoned.

King made Khwaja Mahmud Gawan, Malik-ut-tujjar, trafdar of Bijapur and Wakil-e-Sultunate giving him full control of military matters. Humayun was a very short tempered and cruel man. He made his own cousin Sikandar Khan as Sipahsalar. Sikandar became rebellion and was crushed to death with the help of Mahmud Gawan. Humayun died on 28th Zi-Qada 865 AH.

Sep 4, 1461 - Jul 30, 1463 A.D : NIZAM-UD-DIN AHMAD III
S/o Humayun Shah
On Humayun's death his son Ahmad succeeded to the throne as Nizam-ud-din Ahmad III at the age of 8. He was escorted to the throne by Shah Muhib-ul-la and Syed-us-Sadat Syed Hanif. Late king had nominated a council of Regency constituting of Khwaja-e-Jahan Turk, Mahmud Gawan with the Dowager Queen Makhduma-e-Jahan Nargis Begum. Master mind which ruled the country during the short reign of Ahmad Shah III was that of the great queen. All the political prisoners of Humayun period were released. Ahmad III died on the very night of his marriage on 13th Zi-Qada and was succeeded by his younger brother Muhammad Khan as Shams-ud-din Muhammad Shah III.

Jul 30, 1463 - Mar 26, 1482 A.D : Muhammad Shah III

Shamsuddin Muhammad was between 9 and 10 years when he succeeded his elder brother. He was escorted to the Turquoise Throne by Shah Mohib-ul-lah (who was released by his captor Mahmud Khalji of Malwa) and Syed Hanif. Nizam-ul-mulk murdered Khwaja-e-Jahan Turk (one of the member of the three party committee of Regency after the death of Humayun ) ) at the instance of Queen in the presence of boy king in 870 AH.
Mohammad Shah III got married at the age of 14 years. Dowager Queen retired from active role.

1463 A.D: Malik-ut-tujjar Mahmud Gawan was made Prime Minister. The Prime Minister ship of Mahmud Gawan saw the Bahmani State attaining high unequalled in the whole of its history. During this period Parenda Fort, Great College of Bidar and Madarsa at Bidar. Kherla was besieged in 872 AH. Kapileswar of Orissa was defeated in 1470 AD. Goa was annexed on 20th of Shaban 876 AH. Queen Dowager died in 877 AH.

Boundaries of Bahmani Kingdom now touching the Bay of Bengal in the east and the Arabian Sea in the west. Mahmud Gawan was one of the first ministers in Medieval India to order a systematic measurement of land, fixing the boundaries of villages and towns and making a thorough enquiry into the assessment of revenue.

Mar 12, 1481 A.D : King annexed Kanchi on 1st Muharram, 886 AH. This was the southern most point ever reached by Bahmani. Nobles conspired against Khwaja Mahmud Gawan and prepared a false paper on behalf of Khwaja saying he wants Deccan to be partitioned between him and Purushottum of Orissa. King sentenced Khwaja to death on 5th Safar 886 AH at the age of 73. Later King came to know that Khwaja was innocent. He appointed his son Mahmud as his heir.

The death of this able statesman was soon followed by discontent and disturbance among his nobles. Bahadur Mulk Gilani, the son of the Bahmani governor of Goa, was among the first to rebel.

Muhammad Shah-III died in 1482

Malik Hasan Nizam-Ul-Mulk Governor of Telangana

Mar 26, 1482 - Dec 27, 1518 AD : Mahmood Shah Bahmani II

The long reign of Mahmud Shah Bahmani, was a period of gradual weakening of the state. He ascended the throne at the age of 12 years, when new-comers had been over thrown. New Regency was formed with Queen as president. Qasim Barid was entitled with Barid-ul-mumalik.

We first hear of Qasim entitled Barid-ul-mamalik at the time of the coronation of Sihabuddin Mahmud Bahamani after the death of Muhammad III. He was a Turk. For selfish reasons he allied himself to the faction headed by Malik Naib Nizam-ul-mulk. The coronation of the Sultan was followed by a ruthless massacre of the foreigners in Bidar leaving Nizam-ul-mulk in supreme command. For the help rendered by Qasim to Nizam-ul-mulk, he was made the Kotval of the city of Bidar.

Nizam-ul-mulk, Qasim Barid and Imad-ul-mulk formed the triumvirate and carried on the administration of the kingdom for four years.

King began to indulge in wine women and song and spent so much money that he had to extract many jewels from the Turquoise throne at the instigation of Qasim Barid. Qasim Barid forced Mahmud to make Prime Minister of the kingdom in 897 AH. Malik Ahmad Nizamul-mulk revolted and made a beautiful palace making it the center of his newly created capital, which he named after himself, Ahmadnagar in 900 AH.

1486 AD : Abdullah Adil Khan Deccani or Dakhani
1486 AD - 1495 AD : Qutb-Ul-Mulk Dakhani 

After the death of Adil Khan Dakhani Qawam ul Mulk invaded warangal Nizam-ul-Mulk marched on Warangal and Qawam ul Mulk the younger retreated to Rajahmundry

1495 AD - 1518 AD : Qutbul-Mulk was appointed as the Governor of Tilangana in 901 AH /1495-96 AD who controlled over Warangal, Rachakonda, Devarakonda and Koilkonda.

Charikonda in Kadthal mandal records the gift of one putti of land behind Gavurasamudra tank in Charikonda to Bommaji Tippaji by Anzam Ali Khan, probably a provincial officer, administering under Shahbuddin Mahammad (1482-1518 CE) of Bahamani sultanate

Qasim Barid died in 910 AH and was succeeded byhis son Amir Barid. Ahmad Nizam died in 914 AH and succeeded by his son Burhan. Sultan died on 24th Zil-hij 924 AH.

1509 Dony Defensive. In 1509, the forces of Krishnadevaraya of Vijayanagara (1509-1529) crushed Sultan Mahmood’s army. He then defeated and killed Yusuf Adil Shah, the founder of the Adil Shahi dynasty, and annexed the Raichur Doab. He brought Bidar, Gulbarga, and Bijapur into the fold of the Vijayanagar Empire, and his prime minister Timmarusu, whom he regarded as a father figure, defeated Sultan Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk, the founder of Qutb Shahi dynasty and ruler of Golconda.

Sultanate disintegrated after losing a battle to Krishnadevaraya and Bahmani Kingdom disintegrated into five kingdoms : Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Berar, Golkonda and Bidar.

1510 Kovelaconda Counteroffensive. Krishnadev launched a counteroffensive, forcing the Sultan to make a stand at Kovelaconda. In this battle, according to R.C. Majumdar an even more important one that Dony, Yusuf Adil Shahi of Bijapur was killed, and so ended one of the 4 strategic threats to Vijaynagar.

1512 Gulbarga Offensive. Bijapur fell into chaos on Yusuf Adil Shahi's death, giving Krishnadeva the opening he needed to weaken the Bahmani coalition. He realized that as long as the coalition was unified, at least vis-à-vis Vijaynagar, his nation's security was in danger.

Krishnadev first captured Raichur, then Gulbarga, defeating Barid-i-Mamalik, the titular head of the Bahmani Sultanate. Barid managed to get away to Bidar, pursued by Krishnadev.

Barid was defeated a second time, as Bidar, the Bahmani capital, fell. In a master-stroke of divide-and-rule diplomacy, Krishnadev cunningly restored the Bahmani Sultan to his throne, creating discord and suspicion in the ranks of the coalition.

Thus ended the second strategic threat to Vijaynagar. Krishnadeva was now free to deal with the internal rebellions.

Sultan Quli Khawas Khan Hamdani was the governor of Golkonda and and was awarded the title Qutb-ul-Mulk (Pillar of the Realm) as military chief. He declared the independence of Golconda, after the disintegration of the Bahmani Kingdom into the five Deccan sultanates. Soon after, he declared independence from the Bahmani Sultanate, took the title Qutub Shah, and established the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda (1518-1687 AD)

1518 : While Krishnadevaraya was fighting the ruler of Odisha. He defeated Sitapati Raju (known as Shitab Khan), the ruler of Khammam, and captured the fort. Sitapati Raju (known as Shitab Khan) 1503 AD - 1518 AD ruled from Rachakonda(Nalgonda), Warangal and Khammam forts.

He forced Jeypore's ruler Vishwanath Dev Gajapati to surrender all the territories between the mouths of Krishna and Godavari rivers. He was able to occupy Eluru, Rajamundry and Machilipatnam extending his rule to Coastal Andhra. Sultan Quli's campaign against Krishnadevaraya continued until Timmarusu, the Prime Minister of Krishnadevaraya, defeated the Golconda army.

"A.H." is an abbreviation used in many Western languages for "after hegira," or its Latin form, "Anno Hegirae." Hijra era is the Muslim era dating from AD 622 when Prophet Muhammad was obliged to quit Mecca and flee for safety to Medina. Hijra means flight. It is a Lunar era of about 354 days, and so is 11 days shorter than the solar year. Just as the Gregorian calendar begins with the birth of Christ, the Islamic calendar begins with this pivotal event. The Islamic calendar, which follows a lunar cycle, begins at year 1 A.H.

Administration
The kingdom was divided into four administrative units called ‘taraf’ or provinces. These provinces were Daultabad, Bidar, Berar and Gulbarga
Every province was under a tarafdar who was also called a subedar
Some land was converted into Khalisa land from the jurisdiction of the tarafdar.( Khalisa land was that piece of land which was used to run expenses of the king and the royal household).
Nobles used to get their salary either in cash or in form of grant of land or ‘jagir’.

Military:Bahamani ruler depended for military support on his amirs
There were two groups in the ranks of amirs: One was the Deccanis who were immigrant Muslims and had been staying for a long time in the Deccan region. The other group was Afaquis or Pardesis who had recently come from Central Asia, Iran and Iraq.
Bahamanis were familiar with the use of gunpowder in warfare.

Literature
Persian, Arabic and Urdu literature flourished in this period.
Mohammad Gawan wrote poems in Persian language. Riyaz-ul-Insha, Manazir-ul-insha are his works.
A new dialect called “Dakhini urdu “ became popular during this time.
The famous sufi saint of Gulbarga, Khwaja Bande Nawaz Gesu Daraj wrote in this language.

Architecture
They followed Indo-Islamic style of architecture with some improvisation. Local materials were used to construct the buildings.
The architecture was highly influenced by Persian architecture.
Some features of this style areTall minarets
Strong arches
Huge domes
Spacious Hazaras
Crescent moon at the top of the building



http://hist33.blogspot.com/2016/05/20-may-1378-daud-shah-assassinated.html
https://www.insightsonindia.com/medieval-indian-history/bahamani-kingdom/
https://www.clearias.com/bahmani-sultanate/

Read More