Haihaya Chiefs

Heheya Kingdom (also known as Haihaya, Haiheya, Heiheya, etc.) is one of the kingdoms ruled by Chandravanshi (Yadava) kings in central and western India. The Puranas style the Haihayas as the first ruling dynasty of Avanti.

Mahishmati was an ancient city and the capital of Haihayas in the present-day central India on the banks of Narmada River, although its exact location is uncertain. 

A number of early medieval dynasties, which include the Kalachuris and the Mushakavamsha Mushika Kingdom of Kerala, claimed their descent from the Haihayas.

Kartavirya Arjuna

Niladhwaja in Mahismati

Suradeva of Ratanpur conquered Telingana

Haihayas were subdued in the seventh century by Vinayaditya, the Western Chalukya king Vinayaditya, and Mahishmati was incorporated in his kingdom. The Haihaya chiefs then served as governors under the Chalukyas.

Aralu Branch(Sedam, Chitpur in Kalaburagi district in Karnataka)

Aralu 300 region

Chanda, Nimba, Allapuli, Chanda bhupalaka II, Ayyana, Muvadi ganda, Revarasa

1038 AD  - 1054 AD: Revarasa

Wife : Maliyabbarasi

1042 AD : One of them , belonging to Yewur and dated 1042 , states that he was the subordinate of Jayasimha II and that he was the son of Chanda .

24 Dec 1054 AD : Kembhavi Inscription Chanda, Nimba, Allapuli, Chanda bhupalaka II, Ayyana, Muvadi ganda, Revarasa

1035 AD - 1058 AD : Anemarasa I  or Yanemarasa I

1035 - 1038 : Kanduru Anemarasa : Record from Mallesvaram Saka 955 and Saka 960 

1058 AD An inscription found at Nagai in Gulbarga dated 1058 AD, Ayyarasa of Haihaya family was ruling Kandurnadu under Somesvara I.

1058 AD - 1071 AD Bacharasa
Queen Kalabbarasi
Bacharasa issued an inscription in his own name- without mentioning his overlords , the Chalukyas of Kalyana . This inscription from Ingalgi in Chitpur has a date corresponding to 1071 A.D.

1096 AD - 1104 AD : Anemarasa II  or Yanemarasa II

Mahamandelesvara Anemarasa was the successor of Bacharasa. He appears in 1096 AD as the subordinate of Chalukya Vikramaditya VI

Kammaravadi Inscription, the reign of Tribhuvanamalla (Vikramditya VI) mentions Yanemarasa of the Haihaya Vamsa with the title of ' Lord of Mahishmati ' . He was ruling in 1104 A.D. , the territory in the neighbourhood of Kammaravadi in the old Hyderabad State

Sankarasa

Bijjarasa II (Son Lokaditya)
Lokadityarasa (Bijja ankakara)

1129 AD : Mallidevarasa

As per Hirebudanur inscription, ruling Mahishmati

1142 AD : Rayaparaja

25th June 1142 AD : Peddavuru, Nalgonda.
This inscription is in Telugu prose and dated Saka 1064, Dundubhi Ashadha Sukla 1, Thursday (A.D. 1142, June 25). It records a grant of two mattars of land to the god Kamisvara of the village Uriya (Peddavuru) for the daily worship etc., by Mahamandalesvara Rayapa Raju of the Haihaya dynasty. The donor is attributed with all the prasasti commonly met with in the epigraphs of the Haihaya dynasty.

2nd July 1142 AD : This inscription is set up in front of Vishnu Kameswara temple. The inscription begins with the usual prasasti of the Haihaya kings and introduces Mahamandalesvara Rayaparaja who is stated to have made a gift of sixty puttis and two marturs vritti for the worship and offerings to the god Kamesvaradeva of Uriya in Gidvaka of the kings of his family.

1158 AD : Anemarasa III younger brother of lokaditya

Anemarasa II succeeded Lokaditya and he was a Mahamandaleshvara under Chalukya king Taila II in 1158 AD

Sons Bijjarasa, Yecharasa

ViraBijjarasa (Bijjarasa III,Anegadeva) (1209, 1221AD)(Queen Slriyadevi)
Yecharasa (Son Kacharasa)
Kacharasa (1212AD)

Suriyaraja
Battuvariguda, Miryalaguda Taluk. : Haihaya Chiefs
This inscription is on a slab in front of the Kameswara temple. The inscription begins with the prasasti of the Haihayas and seems to record the gift of some gold gadyas to the god of Uriya (i.e. Pedda uru) by Suriyaraja. Other details are not known and the last portion is unintelligible.

The Gonas or Konas (1190 AD - 1294 AD), of Haihaya descent, are the feudatories of Kakatiyas.

A Kona Rajendra choda Vennachodaya bearing the Kona Haihaya prasasti and his wife Nimmale Devi, daughter of Premkanti Virappa Reddi are mentioned in a record from Draksharama dated A.D. 1237. Vennachoda’s relationship to the main line is not known. A Kona Betaraja figures in a record from Kumaradevam dated A.D. 1247.

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Kalachuris of Kalyani

1156 - 1183 : Kalachuris of Kalyani 

Founder : 

Kalachuris of Kalyani  also known as Kalachuris of Mahishmati, were an Indian dynasty rose to power in the Deccan region between 1156 and 1182 CE . They are also known as the Early Kalachuris to distinguish them from their later namesakes, especially the Kalachuris of Tripuri.

Soma

Krishna

c. 925 AD : Uchita
c. 950 AD : Asaga
c.975 AD : Kannama
c. 1000 AD : Kirivasaga or Asana II
c. 1057 AD : Bijjala I

Bijjala I was a feudatory of Chalukya Somesvara I in 1057 A.D. 

c.1067 Kannama II

Bijjala’s son Kannama II was also a Chalukya feudatory in 1067 A.D. 

c.1069 AD - c. 1080 AD Ammarasa

The inscription found at Mandrup in south Solapur taluka relates to the period 1069 A.D. The rule of the Kalachuri chief Ammarasa, who is stated to have ruled from Mangaliveda. It mentions the administrative division Anandura-300 and another smaller division of 30.

c. 1080 AD : Jogama

It was suggested by Dr. Desai that Kannama’s son Jogama came to power in about 1080 A.D. though the earliest known date for him so far is 1087-88 A.D. the date of an inscription from Kolagiri in Jath taluka of Sangli district

c.1118 AD - c. 1130 AD : Permadi

1130 - 1167 AD : Bijjala II proclaimed independence in 1156.
Established the authority over Karnataka after wresting power from the Chalukya king Taila III.

He was the most famous of the southern Kalachuri kings who ruled initially as a vassal of Chalukya Vikramaditya VI. He ruled as the Mahamandalesvara (chief or governor) over Karhada-4000 and Tardavadi-1000 provinces, designations given to territories within the larger Western Chalukya kingdom.

Mahamandaiesvara Bijjala is mentioned with his brother Mailugi in inscription dated 1147 A.D. as a subordinate to Jagaddekamalla II. 

He revolted against the Western Chalukya Empire, assumed imperial titles in 1157, and ruled along with his successors, the Deccan Plateau for a quarter of a century

1168–1176 : Sovideva

This inscription was found in the Hanuman temple at Sivani in north Solapur relates to 1171 A.D. It refers itself to the reign of the Kalachuri king Sovideva.

Mallugi --> overthrown by brother Sankama

1176 - 1178 AD : Sankama

1178 AD - 1183 AD : Ahavamalla

18th July, 1181 AD : Appanapalli , Mahabubnagar
This inscription is on the northern wall of Siva temple. Records that the elders of Aiyyavolu 500, 36 Beedu of Mummari and the Ubhaya nananadesis of Kannada Navaka 1000 assembled and built the gateway (torana) at Kadamburu.
Note: This Ahuvamalla was the fifth son of Bijjela. His earliest record is dated A.D. 1181. If this was his third year, he must have proclaimed himself as king in A.D. 1178-79.

11th January, 1182 AD : Alampur, Jogulamba Gadwal District
This inscription is of the time of the Kalachuri king Ahavamalla, son of Bijjala. It cites the date, his 4th regnal year, Magha s.u. 5, Monday. This date regularly corresponds to A.D. 1182, January 11.

It states that the representatives of the trading corporation of Ayyavale-Five-Hundred, Ubhaya-Nanadesis, Mummuridandas of Thirty-six Bidus, Kannada-Four-Thousand and the chief men of the business centres like Trumbula, Gobbur, Maddur and Alampur, assembled in a conference and made the gift of income derived from tools on various transactions to the Gavaresvara Kesava-rasi, Sthanapati of the temple received the gift.

Alampur, Mahaboobnagar District.
11th January, A.D. 1182. :This inscription is dated Regnal year 4, Magha su. 5, Monday, (A.D. 1182, Jan. 11). It records that the representatives of the trading corporation of Ayyavale-500, Ubhaya-nanadesis, Mummuri Dandas of 36 Bidus, Kannada four thousand and the chief men of business centres like Tumbula, Gobburu, Madduru, and Alampur assembled in a conference and made the gift of income from tools on various transactions to the god Gavaresvara. Kesavarasi Sthanapati received the gift.

Singhana

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Dulapally Prasanthi Vanam

Dulapally Prasanthi Vanam is located in Dulapally, Quthbullapur Mandal, Medchal-Malkajgiri district, Telangana State, India.

Prasanthi Vanam Park in Dulapally is developed in Dulapalli Reserved Forest area located on Dulapalli – Bahadhurpally Road was once a dump yard which has undergone an incredible transformation. Developed in 25 acres this park is presently filled with medicinal & flower plantations; has a walking track & children play area.

The major species available in the park are Marri, Raavi, Peltophorum, Usiri, Chinta, Bamboo, Nemalinara, Seethaphal etc.

Facilities in prashantavanam park:-
i. Entry plaza developed with the parking facilities.
ii. Long walking track and internal walking pathways are developed in this park
iii. Yoga shed
iv. Gazebo
v. The medicinal plant garden.
vi. Wash Room.
vii. The ticket counter.
viii. The security Room with Office Room
ix. The Children play Area
x. The Open GYM
xi. The artificial sitting benches.

Details
Visting Timings 11.00 AM to 6.00 PM
Visting Ticket Adults Rs.15/-
children Rs.10/-
Walking Timings 5.30 AM to 9.00 AM
Walking Pass Monthly pass : Rs.100/-
6 Months pass : Rs. 400/-
1 Year pass : Rs.800/-
Parking Ticket 2 wheeler : Rs: 5/- for day
4 wheeler : Rs: 10/- for day.
Contact Details Mallikarjun Naik (FRO):9000590369
Holidays All Days Open

The park is around 20 Kms from secunderabad.

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Bhagyanagar Nandanavanam Park

Bhagyanagar Nandanavanam Park is located in Narapally village under Pocharam Municipality in Ghatkesar mandal, Medchal-Malkajgiri District, Telangana State, India.

Bhagyanagar Nandanavanam Park comprises of a buffer zone covering an area of about 84.24 hectares and a conservation zone covering an area of about 116 hectares. 

The Bhagyanagar Nandanavanam is also a deer park. Walking along the pathway, you will find some Peacocks as the park hosts a small peacock sanctuary.

Bhagyanagar Nandanavanam a nature conservation park, has Walking track developed with a length of 4 Kms internal pathways and a Canopy walkway with a length of 200 mts. The park is a visual treat for nature lovers. 

Beyond wonderful walkway you can experience Forest trails at Bhagyanagar Nandanavanam park.

The park has a metal fencing Canopy Walk way of 200 meters laid with strong iron mesh with railings on both sides above 20 feet from the ground and a watchtower to have a good 360 degree view of the complete park from here.

 

The Bhagyanagar Park is ideal for weekend outings, there is a well maintained walkway, green trees and above all, you will get disconnect with urban concrete jungle once you are inside the park.

The park with green walking paths, forest trails, a perfect destination for nature walks, a romantic getaway and space for morning walk and evening walk.

Activities
Canopy Walk, Walking, Kids Play Area, Forest Trails, Bird Watching, Cycling, are some of the activities you can engage here.

Rock Climbing
The outdoors has something more to offer than just physical benefits for children. Cognitive and social/emotional development are impacted, too. Outside, children are more likely to invent natural adventure games. As they do, they're able to express themselves and learn about the world in their own way.

How to Reach
The park is situated at about 25 Km from Hyderabad city towards eastern side, in the Ghatkesar Mandal, on Hyderabad-Warangal road in Narapally, Medchal District.

From Jubilee Hills - 30Kms

From Gachibowli - 40Kms

Timmings
Walkers
5:30AM to 9 AM

Visitors
11 AM to 6.00 PM

Tariff
Audults - ₹15
Children [5-12 Years] - ₹10

Cycling - ₹20 / Hour
Canopy Walk Way - ₹5

Membership
1 Month - ₹100
6 Months - ₹400
1 Year - ₹800


Note: Smoking and Chewing Tobacco is strictly prohibited in Bhagyanagar Nandanavanam Park!

Note: Plastic bags and disposable bottles not allowed.

http://www.walk4health.in/bhagyanagar-nandanavanam.html

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Kandlakoya Oxygen Park

Kandlakoya Oxygen Park is located in Kandlakoya Village towards the Outer Ring Road, Medchal Mandal, Medical-Malkajgiri district, Telangana State, India. 

For nature lovers and adventure-seekers, who find peace in exploring green forests and study birds, etc, need not worry about planning their holidays elaborately, as Kandlakoya Oxygen Park, spread in sprawling 75 acres has come up just in city backyard - about 20 km from Paradise Circle and six km from Kompally on the NH44. Hyderabadi's along with family and friends can escape from the concrete jungle and city's hustle bustle to spend time in tranquility whenever they want without any elaborate planning.

The Kandlakoya Oxygen Park is known for its rich biodiversity. It is situated at a high altitude and people go for treks and nature walks here.

The park has a variety of trees, including medicinal plants, and is home to numerous species of birds and butterflies. The park also has a children’s area, a butterfly park and a tree-top walkway. At the oxygen bar of the Kandlakoya Oxygen Park, visitors can breathe in pure oxygen.

The park offers different walking tracks to enjoy the nature at its core. This park gives respite from pollution with a breath of fresh air.

The Oxygen Park has a 2.2 km walking track along the periphery and internal pathways add another 2 km to the walk.

Canopy walk is provided with a length of 260 mtrs, walking on canopy gives visitors a visual treat by watching birds close by and feel the touch of nature.

Activities

Canopy Walk, Walking, Kids Play Area, Forest Trails, Bird Watching, Cycling, Dining in Forest are some of the activities you can engage here.

Walk and jog: The park has a jogging track perfect for walking, jogging, and running. The track is surrounded by greenery.

Take a nature walk: The park has several walking trails that are well-marked.

Bird watching: Peacocks, parakeets and kingfishers are few of the many bird species that are found in the park.

Trekking: The Kandlakoya Oxygen Park has a trekking trail that takes you through the park’s forest area. The trek is moderately challenging.

Cycling: The park has a cycling track that is perfect for cycling enthusiasts. At the park, you can rent bicycles or bring your own.

Picnic: The Kandlakoya Oxygen Park is ideal for a picnic with family and friends. The park has several picnic spots.

Yoga and meditation: The park has a dedicated area for yoga and meditation.

Adventure sports: The park offers adventure sports like ziplining, rock climbing, and rappelling for those seeking an adrenaline rush.

Distance 

Suchitra Circle - 12Kms

Secunderabad : 18 kms

Paradise Circle : 20 kms
Jubilee Hills - 30Kms
Gachibowli - 40Kms

Timmings

Walkers : 5:30AM to 9 AM
Visitors : 6 AM to 6 PM

Tariff
Audults - ₹15
Children [5-12 Years] - ₹10

Walking Membership
1 Month - ₹100
6 Months - ₹400
1 Year - ₹800

Note: Smoking and Chewing Tobacco is strictly prohibited in Kandlakoya Oxygen Park!
Note: Plastic bags and disposable bottles not allowed.

The Kandlakoya oxygen park was inaugurated on March 21, 2018 by former forest minister Devaramane Nath. The park has become the first choice of families keen to spend quality time, especially on weekends.



https://www.thehansindia.com/telangana/kandlakoya-oxygen-park-enjoy-deep-forest-outing-in-citys-backyard-600175

http://www.walk4health.in/kandlakoya-oxygen-park.html

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Narsapur Forest and Park

Narsapur Forest is located near Narsapur village, Medan District, Telangana State, India  home to exquisite flora and fauna, rock formations and ponds, is a perfect spot to unwind.

This forest range that is spread over 30 sqkm in Narsapur village is just 45 km from Hyderabad and a perfect spot to unwind with friends. Brimming with a plethora of exquisite and fragrant flora and fauna, natural rock formations and ponds, you can set your adventure soul free here and wander through the remote forest areas. Say hello to birds, different species of butterflies and mischievous monkeys you spot all along the way.

The well-defined paths lead to a stream that further takes you to a big secluded lake where you can spend some time strolling, relaxing and conversing. We recommend you return before darkness sets in. The whole path is around 11 km and takes around four to five hours to complete, in case you don’t take long breaks midway.

Monsoon is the best season to visit here. Don’t worry that you will get lost in the woods. You can easily navigate through Google Maps. Start early in the morning. The condition of the road is excellent and you can enjoy the ride through the countryside. There are small steep elevations but are easy to climb. You can start your trek from the Bonthapally temple.

Every path in the forest has something to explore. You’ll find no stalls for food and water around the forest range, so carry enough water bottles and snacks with you. Make sure you wear sturdy shoes.

Narsapur Forest Urban Park 

You can also visit the nearby Narsapur Forest Urban Park to get a stunning view of the whole forest from the watchtower. 

The entry fee is Rs 50. At the entrance, you can see the map of the place.

Distance: 36 km from Kukatpally, 75 kms from Gachibowli

What to remember: Food, drinking water, sturdy shoes

Be careful of: Snakes

Location : https://maps.app.goo.gl/KawgHEJEh7gZK69ZA

https://telanganatoday.com/narsapur-forest-a-perfect-spot-to-unwind

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Indian History

Jambudvipa (Sanskrit; Jambudīpa) is a name often used to describe the territory of Greater India in ancient Indian sources.

The seven continents of the Puranas are stated as Jambudvipa, Plaksadvipa, Salmalidvipa, Kusadvipa, Krouncadvipa, Sakadvipa, and Pushkaradvipa

The history of India goes by its own significance. The Indian civilization is as old as the civilization of the Nile Valley of Egypt and Mesopotamia. Many ancient civilizations of the world are now either extinct or have failed to preserve their old traditions. However, the Indian Civilization has achieved greatness in preserving its age old traditions to the present day. 

Though India is one of the earlier civilizations of the world, we are confronted with a serious problem of paucity of necessary records for the reconstruction of its ancient history. 

The main purpose of history is to throw light on the past. The study of early Indian history isimportant for several points of views. It tells us how, when and where the people of India developed their earliest cultures.

Ancient Indian history is interesting because India proved to be a crucible of numerous races. Since ancient times India has been the land of several religions. Ancient India witnessed the birth of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism, but all these cultures and religions intermingled and interacted.

SOURCES

Types of sources of Indian history:

Archeological sources
Literary sources
Foreign Accounts

Archeology is the combination of two word ‘Archaios’ and ‘Logia’, where archaios means ancient and logia means knowledge. 

Excavations

Inscriptions 

Coins
Seals
Potteries
Monuments

Caves
Sculptures

Paintings

Literary Sources
Literary sources can be broadly divided into:
Religious sources.
Non-religious sources.

Religious Sources:
Vedic texts(four Vedas)

Epics
Puranas
Smriti texts
Buddhist texts

Jain texts

Non-religious Sources:
Arthashastra- Kautilya
Rajtarangini- Kalhana
Nitisara- Kamandaka
Mahabhshya- Patanjali
Mudrarakshasa- Vishakhdutta

Ashtadhayayi- Panini

Foreign Accounts are a part of literary sources which consist of writing of Greek, Roman, Chinese and Arab travelers. In contradiction to Indian historians, foreign travelers too interest in Non-religious incidence. Thus, their work throws light on political and social conditions.

Archaeology is closely connected with history. The science which enables us to dig the old mounds in a systematic manner and to form an idea of the material life of the people is called archaeology. Material remains recovered as a result of excavation and explorations are subjected to various kinds of scientific examination. Without archaeological researches and proper examination of ancient inscription the history of ancient India would have remained largely unknown.

1774 : First time the study of the Indian antiquities was initiated by scholars like Sir William Jones, who in 1774 founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal. 

The names of Dr. Buchanon, Hamilton, James Princep, Sir Alexander Cunningham, Sir John Marshal – all Europeans and names of Indian scholars like R.D. Banerjee, Dayaram Sahani, and K.N. Dixshit deserve special mention.

Excavation is the most important tool of the archaeologist. The archaeologists carry out excavation to reveal ancient past. Archaeology deals with the exploration and excavation of sites. Sites are places where material remains of past human activity can be identified. Sites are often discovered by sheer ancient. They can also be discovered by using clues in literature, by regional surveys or with the aerial photograph.

There are two methods of excavations- Horizontal and Vertical excavations. 

The dating methods are based directly or indirectly on the principle of carbon-14 or radio carbon dating.

Inscriptions are the most important part of archeological sources. They can be considered as the most authentic and reliable source. The study of inscription is known as Epigraphy. Paleography is the the study of old writings held in inscriptions. 

The Ashokan inscriptions which are in a number of different languages and scripts, but mostly in the Prakrit language and Brahmi Script, i.e., written from left to right. But some were also inused in the kharosthi script, i.e. from right to left. The deciphering of Ashokan inscriptions by James Princep in 1837 was one of the great wonders of archaeology.

The largest numbers of official documents are engraved on copper plates. Mostly copper plates were used for writings inscriptions. These copper plates are called Tamrapatra or Tamraoatra or Danapatra according to their content and purpose. 

The study of coins is known as Numismatics. 

Coins are of immense importance in information of ancient Indian history. With the help of coins we not only get to know about the trade and commercial activities of the time but also get to know about the economic and technological development of the time through the shape, material and technology involved in minting these coins. The dates mentioned on the coins help us to know about the chronology of the king. Coins also helps us to interpret about the religious ideologies of the rulers with the help of dates inscribed on them.

The first coin of India was known as ‘Punchmarked coins’. Since, it was made by the method of punching thus, was known as Punchmarked coins. These coins were possibly introduced by the trading guilds and not by any ruler.

Monuments are one of the most important elements of archeological sources. The study of these monuments not only helps us to interpret about the technical skills, living standard, economic condition of the time but also help us to know about the architectural style of the time. Where the magnificent monuments depicts the prosperity of a ruler or the dynasty on the improvement of the empire.

3 Architecture Styles

Nagar style in the North.
Dravid style in the South.
Vesara style in Deccan i.e, in central part of India.

Potteries are one of the important part of archeological sources. These potteries help us to know about the spread of the culture and civilization. 

Sculpture is the important element of Ancient Indian History. The statues made of that time provides us information about the religious conditions of the time.

3 Sculpture Styles
Gandhar style.
Mathura style.
Amravati style

Paintings

This art is also an important elements of history. Ajanta paintings are beautiful example of Ancient Indian History. In these paintings various natural and humanitarian scenes are painted which is extremely unique to witness. Thus, archeological sources, forms a huge part of ancient Indian sources, which can be considered as more authentic more reliable and less biased. But inorder to study ancient Indian history, literary sources are equally important as archeological sources.

Religious Texts:

The base of religious literary sources is formed by Brahmin texts such as Vedic texts, Sutras, Smriti, Puranas and Epics.

Vedic Texts:
The oldest among the Vedas is the Rig veda which give us an idea of Rig vedic which gives us an idea of Rig vedic society, where on other hand Sam veda, Yajur veda and Atharva veda gives us information about the society of later vedic period. Vedas form a history of 900 years(1500B.C-600B.C). These texts helps us to derive out the information about the origin of Aryans, their political structure, their society, economic activities, religious perspectives, cultural achievement and a lot more.

Sutras :
After vedic texts, they arrived an era of Sutras, these were called as Sutra because the word or hymns were placed beautifully like pearls in a thread. These Sutras gives us information about the vedic period. Inorder to understand Vedas well, Vedangas were formed then, they were divided in six parts:

1. Siksha
2. Vyakrana
3. Chhanda
4. Kalpa
5. Nirukta
6. Jyotish

Like Vedangas a section of Upvedas also developed. There are four ‘Upvedas’ related to different Vedas:

1. Ayurveda- It is related to medical science and is an upveda of Rig veda.
2. Gandharva veda- It is related to music and is an upveda of Sam veda.
3. Dhanur veda- It is related to war skills, arms and ammunitions. It is related to Yajur veda.
4. Shilpa veda- It is related to art sculpture and architecture. It is an upveda of Atharva veda.

Smriti Texts:
After sutras , Smritis texs were formed. Manusmriti is the oldest Smriti text, which was formed between 200B.C- 200A.D (400 Years). Yagyavalkaya Smriti was another Smriti text compiled between 100A.D to 300A.D. These two Smriti texts throws light on post Mauryan period.

Narada smriti(300A.D-400A.D) and Parashara Smriti(300A.D-500A.D), throws light on the social and religious conditions of the Guptas. Besides these Brihaspati smiriti(300A.D-500A.D) and Katyayana Smriti(400A.D-600A.D) was also the text of Gupta time.

Puranas:
After Smriti texts Purans were compiled, which were mainly 18 in number. Among these Markandey Purana, Vayu Purana, Brahma Purana, Vishnu Purana, Bhagwat Purana and Matasya Purana were possibly ancient Purana and the rest were created later.
Names of 18 available Puranas

1. Agni
2. Brahma
3. Brahmavaivarta 
4. Kurma
5. Markandaya
6. Narada
7. Shiva
8. Vamana
9. Bhagvata
10. Brahmanda
11. Garuda
12. Linga
13. Matasya
14. Padma
15. Skanda
16. Varaha 
17. Vishnu

There is a great deal of information of ancient Indian dynasties in Matasya, Vayu and Vishnu puranas. Puranas are the only available source of the dynasties which ruled after the battle of Mahabhart. Puranas are also the important element in formation of cultural history of Ancient India. Puranas provides chronology of different dynasties and their hierarchy (from lowest to highest).

Epics:
Epics are also a part of Brahmanic text, Mahabharata and Ramayana being most important among them. Ramayana was created by Valmiki in Post- Mauryan period. Though, the historicity of this text is doubtful but it created a picture of ideal Indian society. Mahabharata was the second epic which was compiled by Vedvyas and it was completed in Gupta period. Initially, it was named as Jai Samhita, which later came to be known as Bharata, because it consisted of history of dynasties of India and ultimately came to be known as ‘Mahabharata’.

Buddhist Literatures:
Pitakas are the oldest Buddhist texts. There are three types of Pitakas- Suttapitaka, Vinaya Pitaka, Abhidhamma Pitaka. It was compiled after Lord Buddha attained Nirvana:

1. Suttapitaka- consists of religious ideology and sayings of Lord Buddha.
2. Vinaya Pitaka- consists of the laws of Buddhist Sangha. 
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka- consists of Buddhist philosophies.

Besides Tripitakas, Jataka kathas were created which consisted of anecdote related to previous birth of Lord Buddha. The compilation of Jataka began in first century B.C but the present form of it was compiled in second century A.D.

Milindapanho is another Buddhist text which gives us information about the philosophical dialogue between Greek ruler Minander and Buddhist saint Nagasena. Divyavadana was another Buddhist text completed in 4th century A.D which consisted of information about different rulers. Aryamanjushrimulkalpa is another Buddhist text which consisted of information about different rulers of Gupta empire from the Buddhist perspective. Angutarnikaya was a Buddhist text which gives the names of Sixteen Mahajanapadas.

Sinhalese Texts:
The Sinhalese texts consisted of Deepvamsha and Mahavamsha which grows like on ancient Indian history. Deepvamsha was created in 4th century A.D and Mahavamsha was created in 5th century A.D. Thus, these Buddhist texts provides us the information about the social and cultural life of that time and also gives us the knowledge of cultural relation of India and foreign counties.

Jain Texts:
The Agama texts are the main Jain texts. The Acharangasutra, a part of the Agamas which were compiled were based on the teachings of Mahavira, talks about the conduct of Jain saints. Vyakhyaprajapati commonly known as Bhagvati sutra, throws light on the life of Mahavira. Nayadhammakaha is the compilation of teaching of Lord Mahavira. There are many other Agama texts. They are total 12 in number. The Bhagvatisutra consist of the information about the 16 Mahajanapadas. The ‘Bhadrabahucharita’ which throws light on the life of Jain Acharya Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta Maurya. The most important Jain text is Parishistaparvana written by Hemchandra in 12th century A.D.

Non-Religious Texts:

The religious texts mainly give us information about the religious ideology and philosophy. Thus, it gives us a very little information about political activity, whereas, non-religious texts throws light on almost all the aspects of the society. Few non-religious texts are:

Ashatadhayayi- It was written by Panini and is the oldest grammer/literature of India. It gives us information about the political, social and religious condition of Pre-Mauryan period.
Mudrarakshasa- of Vishkhadutta gives us information about the Mauryan period. Arthashastra was written by Kautilya also identified as Vishnugupta and Chanakya. It was divided into 15 parts. It gives us information about Indian political system. It also throws light on the condition of Mauryan age Mahabhashya of Patanjali and Malvikagnimitram by Kalidasa gives us information about ‘Shunga Dynasty’. Kamasutra of Vatsyana gives information of sexual life, social life, physical relations, family life, etc . this explains that these sources in scientific ways that it was created to give sex education to the youth of that period. ‘Mricchhakatikam’ by Shudraka and ‘Dashkumaracharita’ by Dandin also provides us information of the social life of that period.

Foreign Accounts:

Greek or Roman Writers:

Herodotus and Thucydides are the oldest Greek and Roman writers. Possibly, these two writers attained information about Iran. Despite of the Greek writers the writing of those travelers who came along with Alexander, Nearchus, Onesiecritus are considered to be more authentic. The another important account is ‘Indica’, which is unfortunately unavailable in thepresent time other Greek and Roman writers created their works based on Indica. These Foreign writers wrote on the condition and aspects which was ignored by the Indian writers. Thus, their writings proved to be of immense importance in the construction of Ancient Indian History.

Periplus of the Erythrean sea is another Greek work written by an unknown writer provides us the information about the Indian ports and the names of commodities imported and exported from India. Ptolemy wrote about the geographical description of India, in 2nd century A.D. ‘Pleny the elder’ Roman historian who wrote ‘Naturalis Historia’ in 1st century A.D proves to be of great importance as it provides plenty of information about animals, crops and minerals in India.

Chinese Travellers:

It is important to mention about all those Chinese travellers who travelled to India and wrote about the conditions that they witnessed. The Chinese writers consist the name of Fa-Hien, Huen Tsang and It-tsing. Fa-Hien visited India in the 5th century A.D and stayed here for fourteen years. He wrote basically about Buddhism and less about the political condition of that time. Huen- Tsang visited India during the time of Harsha and stayed here for sixteen years. He wrote about the religious condition as well as the political condition of that time. He also wrote about the cultural society and education of that time. It-tsing visited India by the end of seventeenth century A.D. He stayed for long time in Vikramshila and Nalanda Universities. Thus, described about the educational institutions of India. Besides these he also described about the food habit and costumes of India.

Arab Travellers:

The Arab travelers began to write about India in 8th century A.D. Sulaiman- al-tajir visited India in the middle of 9th century A.D and wrote about the Palas, Pratiharas and Gurjars. Al-Masudi stayed in India for two years(941- 943A.D) and wrote about the rulers Rashtakuta dynasty. Abu-rehan-alberuni was the most famous writer among the other Arab writers in his Kitab-ul- hind. He gave detailed information about mathematics, geography, philosophy and other religious practices, culture and traditions and social conditions which is worth appreciation.

PRE-HISTORIC AND PROTOHISTORIC PERIODS

The earliest period of history of India has been described as pre-historic age. 

Man has been living in India roughtly from 500,000 B.C. There is no unanimity among the scholars regarding the exact area where man first of all existed in India. Some scholoars are of opinion that man first of all lived in the Sewalik hills, while the others are of the opinion that Deccan was the original place of man in India, because the oldest stone implements have been discovered there. 

However, the man in the process of his development passed through different phases of Stone Age. In this unit you will study three different phases of Stone Age, that is Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic ages according to the kind and nature of the stone tools.

Stone Age

Paleolithic Age or Old Stone Age : The earliest pre-historic period is called Palaeolithic age or the Old Stone Age. The term Palaeolithic is a Greek Word. In Greek language Palaeo means old and Lithic means stone. So the term Palaeolithic age means Old Stone Age. During this age the men were food gatherers and hunters and they used tools of unpolished undressed, rough stones to hunt animals for food. 

In India the first human occupation on the basis of stone tools, is not earlier than the middle Pleistocene which perhaps began about 500,000 years ago. 

600,000 - 60,000 B.C : Early or Lower Palaeolithic Age

The lower Palaelothic man of India was a hunter and a food gatherer. The majority of Early Stone Age tools found in all parts of the subcontinent is made of quartzite. Bori in Maharastra is considered to be the earliest lower Palaeolithic site. The people lived either in rock shelters or in huts with thatched roofs.

150,000 B.C. - 40,000 B.C : Middle Palaeolithic Age

During this period the tools and weapons used became a bit more advanced. Tools were made from flakes which were thin pieces of stone which have been found in different parts of India with regional variations. The principal tool comprise blades, points, borers, knives and scrappers, all made of flakes.

40,000 B.C - 10000 B.C : Upper Palaeolithic Age
The climate of this period saw dramatic changes. The climate was less humied. It was the last phase of ice age and climate became comparatively warm. In the world context, it marks the appearance of new flint industries and men of the modern type (Home Sapiens). The use of blades became more common.

The life of Palaeolithic people living in different parts of the subcontinent were based on their adaptations to the specific environment. They were mainly hunting – gathering communities. They lived in caves and hollows of Trees. Their shelters were made of rock, branches, grass, leaves or reeds. There was no permanent settlement.

10,000 - 6000 B.C - Mesolithic Age

Climatic changes brought about changes in fauna and flora and made it possible for human beings to move from one place to another. The Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing and food gathering and at a later stage they also domesticated animals.

The characteristic tools of the Mesolithic Age are Microliths or tiny tools. Microliths range in length from under 1 cm to 5 cm. The tools are mostly made on short parallel sided blades made of crypto – crystalline silica stone such as quartlite, chaleodong, jasper and agate.

9000 - 3000 B.C - Neolithic age or New Stone Age

The Neolithic people lived in caves, decorated their walls by painting scenes of leaves, flowers, hunting, dancing etc. They knew spinning and weaving, as also making of boats. 

The chief food of Neolithic age was fruits, vegetables, roots, and nuts, flesh of the animals, fish, pulses and milk products. 

People used very scanty dresses. Generally they covered their bodies with barks of trees and skin of animals. At a later stage they discovered clothes of cotton and wool. 

Hunting and fishing was the main occupation of the people. The art of agriculture was not known to them during early stage but later on they developed the art of cultivation of grains. They were also demosticated various animals. There was no specific religion. People of Neolithic age generally worshipped spirits of their ancestors and forces of nature.

The people of this age used large varity of tools and implements of polished stone. The most common being the axes, which have been found in the greater part of the country. The other important tools made by the people of Neolithic age included celts, chisels, mace-heads, arrow – heads, saws etc. Animal bones were also used to make needles, blades and other tools.

The people of Neolithic age also knew about the art of pottery. People used variety of colours in pottery. The most common colours used in pottery were red, brown, yellow etc. The pottery was made with wheels. 

3000 B.C. - 1000 B.C - Chalcolitic Age
Copper was the first metal to be discovered in India. On the basis of the use of metal a new culture developed, which is called Chalcolithic culture.

While in Northern India copper was the metal that came to be used after stone, in Southern India iron replaced stone without the intermediate stage of use of copper.

It is general belief of the scholar that the chalcolithic culture was a rural culture. People belonging to this period usually founded rural settlement on the banks of river. They used stone tools supplemented by some copper tools. They were the first to use painted pottery. They founded large villages in peninsular India and cultivated food grains in abundance. They domesticated different animals. 

The Challolithic peole worshipped the mother goodess as in proved by the discovery of terracotta figures of women

2500 B.C. and 1500 B.C - Indus Valley Civilization

Excavation at Mahenjodaro, Harappa, etc. testify the existence of an advanced urban civilization in the Indus valley region.

The Indus civilization was as old as the civilization of the valleys of Nile and Tigirs. For thousands of years that civilization was lying buried under earth. 

The people of Stone Age had neither currency nor coinage and conducted exchanged through barter. The Harappans had a very extensive trade net work based on barter.

So far the scholars have no unanimity on language and unable to decipher the Harappa script. A total of about 3700 inscribed objects have been discovered from Harappan sites. Most of the writing appears on seals and sealings, some on copper tablets, copper and bronze implements, pottery and other objects. Most of the inscriptions are very short, with an average of five signs and the longest one has 26 sings. There are 400 – 450 basic signs and the script is logosyllabic i.e., each symbol stood for a word or syllable. The people were familiar with the art of writing. They wrote from right to left.

Harappan civilization was the first urban culture in South Asia. 

Archaeological evidence reveals a great deal about this civilization. The town planning system and Great Bath the most imposing construction of Mohenjodaro. 

Harappan arts, craft, trade and commerce, agriculture are the important parts oftheir economic life. 

The people worshipped mother Goddess, animal, trees etc.
The main products were wheat, barley and cotton etc.

Myth of Aryan Invasion/Migration Theory (AIT/AMT)

The Aryan issue started way back in the 16th Century (1584) when an Italian trader named Philippo Sessetti came to Goa and learnt some Sanskrit words and found them similar to Latin and Greek. Based only on this similarity and without any hard evidence, the nineteenth century European scholars, the famous among them being Max Müller and Muir, proposed the Aryan Invasion or Migration Theory that claimed Aryan tribes invaded India in around 1500 BCE, destroyed the existing Harappan culture, moved eastward to create the Ganga-Yamuna doab culture, imposed their language and caste-based system on the original inhabitants, while quickly writing the Vedas over few centuries (Klostermaier, 2007).  

It maintained that a race of European or Central Asian “Aryans” swept into the subcontinent displacing the indigenous Indus Valley Civilisation. These Aryans were said to have introduced key elements of Indian culture such as the Sanskrit language which gave rise to the Indo-Aryan branch of languages spoken all across north, west and east India today as well as the Vedas, the foundational texts of Hinduism.

Besides this, it also made it easy for the British rulers to show themselves as another Aryan group gifting true civilisation to India and civilising the uncouth masses. Another more sinister reason was its use to strengthen the divide and rule policy of the British, where this Aryan invasion/migration theory proved useful in widening the divisions among high-caste Indians (supposed Aryans descendants) and the tribals and lower castes (cleverly represented as original inhabitants of India), while also creating the North-South divide.

Thereby it was irrationally concluded that the Aryans originated from Europe and invaded or migrated.   Moreover, the theory made a claim that the invaders Aryans were like underground roots that have led to the foundation of “Modern India”. Furthermore, the theory also intends to reject the “Harappan civilization” as the root for civilization in India.

As per this theory if they brought sanskrit and vedas to India, these should have been already existed and thrived there and none of the literary texts supposedly written by Aryans does not claim that the Aryans invaded (or migrated) from outside and defeated (or displaced) the locals of that time or any European works mentions this. If the DNA of an Indian matches the DNA of an Iranian, these researchers feel ecstatic. And if it does not they fret the specimen to be statistically inadequate for any research. In other words, this theory sounds nothing but fishy. Some aspects of the theory seem entirely unbelievable and conspicuous.

This went against Hindutva’s own imagination of India, in which all significant cultural development was held to be indigenous.

In a major challenge to the popular “Aryan Invasion” theory, an Indo-US team of researchers on Friday presented scientific evidence from the Harappan era to argue that such a large-scale migration from central Asia to India never happened. This is not a migration but a movement of people, Shinde argued and the movement is not large.

The research published in Cell, one of the world’s top journals not only sets aside the Aryan migration theory but also notes that the hunter-gatherers of Southeast Asia changed into farming communities of their own and were the authors of the Harappan civilisation 

“Research showed the Vedic culture was developed by indigenous people of South Asia,” Shinde asserted.
and also proves that the “Harappans were the Vedic people”.

1500 - 600 BC - Vedic and Sangam Age
1500 - 1000 B.C - Early Vedic Age

It gets its named from the Vedas, which are liturgical texts containing details of religion, philosophy and social customs of Hindus. The Vedic texts along side the corresponding archaeological evidences, allow for the evolution of the Vedic culture to be traced and inferred. 

The history of the Vedic period is based mainly on Vedic texts which were compiled during the Vedic Age. The Vedic literature is divided into three periods

First period refers to Samhitas or texts or the four Vedas Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda. The collection of Vedic hymns or mantras were known as the Samhitas.

The second period refers to the time of the Brahmanas. The Brahmans contain observations on various sacrificial rites and rituals. 

The third period refers to the Upanisads, Aranyakas and the Sutra literature. 

The word Upanishad which means "sitting down near" was the secret communication or doctrine imported by the teacher to the pupil. 

The Aranyakas or forest texts deals with mystician and philosophy and not with rituals. 

1500-1000 B.C : Rig Veda
The Rig Veda is the only source which gives most valuable information about the life of the early Vedic people and society. Though Rig Veda was not a historical work it provides useful information about the history

1000 - 600 B.C - Later Vedic age
Sangam Age

The circulation of coins as medium of exchange was started probably in Vedic period. These ancient coins were known as Nishka, Suvarna, Karshopana, Shatamana and Pada. These may have been metal pieces of definite weight, not necessarily full fledged coins.

RISE OF HETERODOX SECTS

a. Jainism
b. Buddhism

EMERGENCE OF EMPIRE

a. The Mahajanapadas
b. Magadha
c. The Nandas

The earliest definite literary and archaeological evidence of coinge in the Indian sub-continent dates from the 6th – 5th centuries BCE in a context of the emergence of Janapadas, urbancentres and trade.

Kautilya, the minister of Chandragupta Maurya, has incidentally refered to the counterfeiters of coins in his Arthasastra, the book on statecraft, which was complied in the 4th century BCE.

The earliest coins which have been discovered by archaeologist in the subcontinent are punch marked coins made mostly of silver and copper. They are usually rectangular, sometimes square or round on the basis of their manufacturing technique.

A new phase in the history of Indian coinage is marked by the die-struck Indo-Greek coins of the 2nd and 1st century BCE. These are very well executed, usually round and mostly in silver. They bear the name and portrait of the issuing ruler of the obverse coins of the Sakas, Parthians and Kshatrapas follow the basic features of Indo Greek coinage.

The Kushana (1st to 3rd century A.D.) were the first dynasty of the subcontinent to mint large quantities of gold coins.

The earliest Indian Kushana coins are those which were issued by Kujal Kadphises in copper. Kaniska, who like his predecessor, issued coins only in gold and copper.

It might be interesting to know that the earliest find on the punch – marked coins in the country was discovered in the south. In 1800 A.D. Col. Caldwell had found such coins in the district of Coimbatore.

https://rgu.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Download_604.pdf

https://magadhmahilacollege.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Sources-of-Indian-History.pdf

https://scroll.in/article/936872/two-new-genetic-studies-upheld-aryan-migration-theory-so-why-did-indian-media-report-the-opposite

https://www.deccanherald.com/india/new-dna-study-challenges-aryan-invasion-theory-759635.html

https://organiser.org/2023/04/11/132260/bharat/aryan-invasion-theory-indian-response-to-the-colonial-construct/

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