Phanigiri

The earliest phase of the Mahastupa dates to the Mauryan period (c. 3rd century BCE), likely connected to Emperor Ashoka’s distribution of relics after the Kalinga War. Phanigiri is considered a Paribhogika stupa — one containing the personal belongings of the Buddha or a great monk, rather than bodily relics. This is confirmed by the 2015 discovery of a silver casket containing meditation beads and gold/silver flower petals.

The great stupa was enlarged and refurbished under the Satavahanas (1st–2nd c. CE) and again under the Ikshvakus (3rd c. CE). The Ikshvaku period added the apsidal chaityas, the pillared congregation hall, and elaborate limestone relief panels. The site’s ancient name was Dharmachakrapuram (City of the Wheel of Dharma), as recorded in inscriptions. Phanigiri’s strategic location near the trade route between the Krishna valley and the east coast made it a prosperous monastic hub.

The Mahastupa is a large hemispherical brick dome (anda) on a circular drum (medhi) with a diameter of about 25 metres. A lime‑concrete circumambulatory path (pradakshinapatha) surrounds the drum. The stupa originally had four torana gateways at the cardinal points and was faced with carved limestone slabs. In 2015, a remarkable relic casket was found at the north‑eastern corner: a red‑ware pot containing a silver container with 11 miniature beads (a meditation mala), three silver flower petals, and three gold flower petals. This confirms it as a Paribhogika stupa — holding the personal effects of a venerated monk.

Two apsidal chaityagrihas have been excavated — a unique feature in Telangana. Each has a semi‑circular rear end and a rectangular nave, with a small brick stupa at the apsidal centre as the focal point. The larger chaitya measures about 20 m in length. These structural chaityas are an intermediate form between rock‑cut chaityas (Karlā, Bhaja) and later free‑standing temples. They had wooden roofs (now lost) and were used for congregational worship.

Three viharas (monastic residences) were found, each with a rectangular courtyard surrounded by small cells (kutis) measuring ~2.5 m × 2.5 m, with raised platforms for sleeping. A separate stone‑pillared congregation hall features square granite pillars arranged in rows — an early example of a free‑standing pillared hall in the Deccan. The total monastic community likely numbered 50–100 monks.

Several carved limestone slabs have been recovered, including scenes from the Vessantara Jataka (Prince Vessantara offering his white elephant) and the Shama Jataka (a story of filial piety). The style follows the Ikshvaku‑Amaravati idiom: slender, elegant figures with flowing drapery in low relief. Stucco images of Buddha and Bodhisattvas were also found, indicating a tradition of modelled plaster sculpture similar to Nagarjunakonda.

The site yielded several Brahmi label inscriptions naming donors: monks (“Dhamagirinika” from Dharmagiri), lay followers (“Gamikasa”), nuns (“Budhaghosha”), and a “navakammika” (master builder / superintendent of works). These inscriptions, dating to the 1st–3rd centuries CE, provide invaluable evidence of Buddhist patronage networks in the Deccan.

One of the most spectacular finds is a Roman gold aureus of Nero Caesar, weighing approx. 7.3 g. The obverse bears Nero’s bust, the reverse a standing figure (probably Roma). This coin is direct evidence of Phanigiri’s participation in the Indo‑Roman trade network — Roman gold flowed into the Deccan in exchange for spices, pearls, and textiles. Its presence in a Buddhist monastery suggests that wealthy merchants used the site as a centre for donations and banking.

A unique potin coin (copper‑lead alloy), 1.5 cm diameter, was found on the surface of the Mahastupa. The obverse shows a male bust (king), and the reverse features a ship with 3rd‑century CE characters reading “Mahakshtrapa” — referring to the Western Kshatrapa rulers of Saurashtra and Malwa. The ship motif is extremely rare on Indian coins and points to maritime power. This coin links Phanigiri to western India and the broader Indian Ocean trade network.

Other numismatic finds include punch‑marked coins of the Satavahanas, lead coins of the Ikshvakus, and silver drachms of the Mahakshtrapas. Together they demonstrate Phanigiri’s role as a node in the long‑distance trade routes connecting the Deccan to the Roman Empire and western India via the ports of Sopara, Kalyan, and the Krishna river delta.

A fragmentary Prakrit record in Brahmi script, dating to the reign of Chamtamula Maharaja (Ikshvaku ruler), mentions Siritagissa and ends with the date “divasam 6” (Day 6). This inscription, found on a limestone slab, confirms the Ikshvaku patronage of the monastery. Another slab refers to the Navakaammika (Superintendent of Works) who oversaw the construction of the stupa and monastic buildings on the “Hill of the Snake Hood”.

In the 18th regnal year of Rudrapurushadatta (approx. 352 CE), Phanigiri witnessed the emergence of the earliest Sanskrit poetic verses in the region. Four verses (slokas) were inscribed:

These verses are remarkable for their syncretic nature — praising Siva, Vishnu, and the Buddha within a single Buddhist monastic context, reflecting the religious fluidity of the late Ikshvaku period.

Navakaammika = Superintendent of Works / master builder.
Mahasenapati = Great Commander (specifically Saramenamdinaka).
Bhadamta = Venerable (title for a monk, here Dharmasena).
Dharmachakrapuram = Ancient name of Phanigiri (“City of the Wheel of Dharma”).
Hemanta Paksha = Winter fortnight, used in the dating formula of Rudrapurushadatta.