Cenozoic Era - The Age of Mammals

The Paleogene Period began in the aftermath of the K-Pg extinction event that wiped out the non-avian dinosaurs. Mammals, which had been small and shrew-like during the Mesozoic, rapidly diversified and evolved into larger forms. This period saw the emergence of early primates, whales, and the first grasses. The global climate was warm and humid, with tropical forests extending to the poles.

• Paleocene (66–56 Mya): Mammals diversify; first primates appear. The Deccan Traps eruptions had ended, and the climate was warm and humid.
• Eocene (56–34 Mya): India collides with Asia (c. 55–50 Mya); Himalayas begin to form; global temperatures reach their peak. This was the warmest period of the Cenozoic.
• Oligocene (34–23 Mya): Climate cools; grasslands expand; first apes appear. The cooling climate led to the expansion of grasslands and the evolution of grazing mammals.

Telangana Connection: The Paleogene was a time of dramatic landscape transformation in Telangana.

• India–Asia Collision: Around 55–50 million years ago, India collided with Asia. This collision closed the Tethys Ocean and created the Himalayan mountain range. The impact of this collision also uplifted the Deccan Plateau and tilted it eastward, causing rivers to flow eastwards across Telangana.
• Western Ghats Uplift: As the Indian plate compressed against Asia, the western margin of the Deccan block rose, forming the Western Ghats. This created a gentle eastward tilt, causing rivers such as the Godavari, Krishna, and their tributaries to flow eastward across Telangana towards the Bay of Bengal.
• Formation of Grabens: Tectonic stretching along pre-existing weak zones created down‑dropped blocks – the Godavari graben and Krishna graben. These rift valleys filled with sediments (sandstone, clay, shale) that later became important aquifers and agricultural plains.
• Landscape Evolution: The combination of uplift, tilting, and rifting sculpted Telangana's characteristic plateau topography – dissected by wide river valleys, dotted with inselbergs (granite hills), and capped in many areas by Deccan Traps basalt.
• Climate: During the Paleogene, the climate was warm and humid, with tropical forests covering much of the region. This would later change as the global climate cooled and the monsoon system intensified.

The Neogene Period was a time of continued cooling and the expansion of grasslands. Mammals continued to evolve, with the appearance of early hominids (the ancestors of humans) in Africa. The Indian monsoon system intensified, altering the climate and vegetation of the subcontinent.

• Miocene (23–5.3 Mya): Grasslands expand; early horses, elephants, and apes appear; Indian monsoon intensifies. The expansion of grasslands created new habitats for grazing mammals.
• Pliocene (5.3–2.6 Mya): Climate cools further; early hominids appear in Africa; modern mammals evolve. The cooling climate led to further expansion of grasslands and the evolution of modern mammals.

Telangana Connection: The Neogene was a time of continued landscape evolution in Telangana.

• River System Development: The Godavari, Krishna, and their tributaries continued to erode and deposit sediments, carving wide valleys and creating the alluvial plains that would later support agriculture. The Godavari graben continued to subside, accumulating thick sedimentary sequences.
• Soil Formation: Intense weathering of Deccan Traps under tropical monsoonal climate produced deep, rich black cotton soil (regur) – ideal for dryland farming (cotton, millets). Along rivers, alluvial soils supported intensive agriculture.
• Fossil Record: The Godavari valley deposits have yielded mammalian fossils (though less studied than older Mesozoic beds). Remains of elephants, hippopotami, and other mammals from the late Neogene have been reported from parts of the Pranhita‑Godavari basin, indicating a savanna‑like environment.
• Landscape Evolution: By the end of the Neogene, Telangana's modern landscape was largely in place – a plateau landscape dissected by the Godavari and Krishna river systems, with fertile soils and diverse ecosystems.

The Quaternary Period is marked by repeated ice ages (glacial‑interglacial cycles). Humans (genus Homo) evolved in Africa and spread across the world. In India, early stone tools (Lower Palaeolithic) appear around 1.5 million years ago. The Quaternary also saw the extinction of many large mammals (megafauna).

• Pleistocene (2.6 Mya – 11,700 years ago): Repeated ice ages; early humans appear and spread; megafauna extinction. The ice ages dramatically altered the climate and landscape of the planet.
• Holocene (11,700 years ago – Present): Current interglacial period; agriculture develops; human civilizations rise. The Holocene has been the stage for the entire recorded history of humanity.

Telangana Connection: The Quaternary has been the stage for the entire human journey in Telangana.

• River Valley Development: The Godavari, Krishna, and their tributaries continued to erode and deposit alluvium, forming wide floodplains. These fertile river valleys became the first corridors for human settlement.
• Soil Formation: Intense weathering of Deccan Traps under tropical monsoonal climate produced deep, rich black cotton soil (regur) – ideal for dryland farming (cotton, millets). Along rivers, alluvial soils supported intensive agriculture.
• Human Occupation: While the earliest Palaeolithic tools in India are from the Soan and Acheulian traditions, Telangana has yielded Lower and Middle Palaeolithic tools (hand‑axes, cleavers, flakes) from the Godavari and Krishna valleys, as well as from districts like Karimnagar, Warangal, and Nalgonda. These stone tools, made from quartzite and basalt, indicate the presence of hominins in the region for over a hundred thousand years.
• Megalithic Transition: Towards the end of the Quaternary (first millennium BCE), megalithic cultures (dolmens, cairns, menhirs) appeared across Telangana, marking the transition from prehistory to the early historic period.
• Holocene – The Age of Civilizations: With the end of the last ice age (~11,700 years ago), the climate became warmer and more stable. Agriculture developed, leading to the rise of settled communities, the emergence of the first kingdoms (Satavahanas, Kakatiyas), and the recorded history of Telangana.