The Vijayanagara Empire (1336 CE - 1646 CE) was a preeminent South Indian empire founded in 1336 AD by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I of the Sangama dynasty. Its capital was the magnificent city of Vijayanagar (modern-day Hampi, Karnataka). The empire was established as a Hindu bulwark against the advancing Delhi Sultanate and later the Deccan Sultanates. The official languages were Sanskrit, Kannada, and Telugu, reflecting its multi-lingual and cosmopolitan nature. Hinduism was the state religion, and the empire was renowned for its patronage of art, architecture, and literature.
The empire's power was projected most consistently and intensely in three core districts: Wanaparthy, Nagarkurnool, and Jogulamba Gadwal. This area, rich with strategic forts and fertile land, became the primary theater for the epic clash between the Hindu kingdom of the south and the Islamic sultanates of the Deccan.
Fort-Based Control: Power was anchored in strategic forts like Pangal (in Wanaparthy) and Panugallu (in Nagarkurnool). These strongholds served as military garrisons, administrative centers, and symbols of authority. The frequent mention of these forts "changing hands" in inscriptions highlights their critical importance.
The Nayankara System: The empire appointed military governors (Amaranayakas or Dandanayakas) to oversee these territories. These governors, such as Kondamarusayya in Nelakondapalli or the officials named in the Alampur inscriptions, were granted land (amaram) in return for maintaining troops and defending the frontier. They collected revenue and administered justice, acting as the de facto rulers on behalf of the Vijayanagara emperor.
A Contested Landscape: Control was fluid. The fortunes of war would push the frontier north or south. Periods of strong emperors like Deva Raya II or Krishnadevaraya saw firm control and expansion. During the reigns of weaker rulers, the Sultanates would reclaim territory. This constant state of flux defined life in this borderland.
Wanaparthy District: The key to this district was the formidable Pangal Fort. Inscriptions from 1397 CE and 1424 CE testify to its enduring importance. Controlling Pangal meant commanding the routes into the heart of the Deccan and securing the southwestern flank of the empire.
Nagarkurnool District: This district was centered around the Panugallu Fort. The 1397 CE inscription from Pangal celebrating its capture by the Sangama commanders shows it was a primary military objective. Its control was synonymous with dominance in the region.
Jogulamba Gadwal District: This area, with the sacred site of Alampur, was a core administrative and cultural zone. A continuous series of inscriptions from 1464 CE to 1529 CE reveals sustained Vijayanagara administration, temple patronage, and land grants, indicating a deeper and more stable integration into the empire compared to the purely military zones around the forts.
The rule of Vijayanagara in these three core districts of Telangana is a story of power, resilience, and conflict. It was not a story of peaceful integration but of a hard-held military frontier that for 200 years withstood the pressure of rival powers, leaving behind a legacy of heroic inscriptions, ruined forts, and a unique chapter in the history of the Deccan. This era came to an abrupt end with the empire's shattering defeat at Talikota in 1565, after which the entire region was swiftly absorbed by the Qutb Shahi Sultanate of Golconda.
At its absolute height under Krishnadevaraya (c. 1515-1529), the Vijayanagara Empire exercised firm control over Jogulamba Gadwal, Wanaparthy, and Nagarkurnool districts, and briefly expanded its administration into Khammam and parts of Nalgonda.
(1509-1529) 1521 CE Inscription(Alampur) Held the title Amara dandanayaka (a high military rank) over Alampur. He made land grants after the subjugation of Raichur, showing his military and administrative role.
While Aliya Rama Raya (Vijayanagara's regent) managed to defeat the coalition, the war was likely fought on multiple fronts.
It is highly probable that the Qutb Shahi Sultan of Golconda, Jamshid Quli Qutb Shah (1543-1550), took advantage of the Vijayanagara army being engaged elsewhere to launch a concerted campaign into the Telangana frontier.
During this offensive, key forts like Pangal and the Kosangi region were captured by Golconda forces.The Pangal area was no longer under the control of the Vijayanagara Empire but was now part of a Muslim Sultanate, Qutb Shahi Sultanate of Golconda.
1551 CE : Sayyid Shah Mir Isfahani, son of Sayyad Ahmad Tababai 15th September, 1551 A.D: His Honour (lit. His Refuge), the wielder of authority, Sayyid Shah Mir Isfahani, son of Sayyad Ahmad Tababai (may he be blessed !) rebuilt the embankment of the Pangal tank, which had fallen out of repair through age, and spent money (on this work) from recompense in the next life. The person who worked hard and supervised 2 Sluices : an artificial passage for water fitted with a valve or gate for stopping or regulating flow.103 (the repairs) was Rahmat Ullah, son of Abdul Karim Khwan Shahi (?). The embankment was breached from …… to the boundary of the river Krishna and water flowed from the tank through the breach (of the dyke) to the town of Pangal………. The share of Musalmans from (the lands of) the tank…….. remain
Districts with Long-Term, Recurrent Control (c. 1360 – 1565 CE)
These southwestern districts were the core of Vijayanagara's territory in Telangana, frequently contested but often under their influence.
Jogulamba Gadwal District
Key Area: Alampur (a major ancient pilgrimage site).
Period of Control: Intermittent but significant control from the reign of Harihara II (1377-1404)until the Battle of Talikota in 1565.
Evidence:
1464 & 1468 AD Inscriptions: Records grants by King Mallikarjuna Raya in Alampur, approved by the pontiff of Srisaila.
1521, 1527, 1529 AD Inscriptions: Multiple records from the reign of Krishnadevaraya in Alampur, showing firm administrative control through his Amara Nayakas.
Wanaparthy District
Key Area: Pangal Fort.
Period of Control: Fluctuating control from the late 14th century until 1565. It was a strategic fort that changed hands multiple times.
Evidence:
30th December 1397 AD Inscription (Pangal): Records the conquest of Panugallu by Dviguna-Bukka during the reign of Harihara II.
1424 AD Inscription (Pangal): From the reign of Deva Raya II, recording the construction of a temple by the governor of Pangal fort.
1504 AD Inscription (Wanaparthy): From the reign of the Saluva king.
Nagar Kurnool District
Key Area: Panugallu Fort.
Period of Control: Similar to Pangal, it was a contested fort with control fluctuating from the time of Harihara II until 1565.
Evidence:
30th December 1397 AD Inscription (Pangal): Explicitly mentions the conquest of Panugallu.
28th February 1397 AD Inscription (Kaleshwaram): Refers to Prince Deva's campaign in the region against chiefs who sided with the Bahmanis, related to the same conflict.
2. Districts with Brief Control during Imperial Peak (c. 1515 – 1540)
These central Telangana districts were brought under Vijayanagara control only during the peak of its power under Emperor Krishnadevaraya and his successor. This control was short-lived and was lost soon after the emperor's death or after the Battle of Talikota.
Khammam District
Period of Control: Briefly under Vijayanagara rule during the conquests of Krishnadevaraya (c. 1515-1529). Likely lost within a few years after his death or definitively after 1565.
Evidence:
4th May 1516 AD Inscription (Nelakondapalli): This is the crucial evidence. It records land grants by Kondamarusayya, the governor of the region appointed by Krishnadevaraya after his conquest.
Nalgonda District
Period of Control: Also briefly conquered by Krishnadevaraya around 1516 AD. This control was even more tenuous than in Khammam.
Evidence:
Nalgonda (Nalagonda) was among the places captured by Krishnadevaraya during his campaign against the Gajapati kingdom.
The End of Rule
The Battle of Talikota in 1565 was the catastrophic event that ended Vijayanagara's rule in Telangana permanently. The victorious Deccan Sultanates, particularly the Qutb Shahi Sultanate of Golconda, swiftly reclaimed all territories. By c. 1570, any remaining Vijayanagara influence in the region was completely extinguished.
In summary: The Vijayanagara Empire's rule was firmly established for long periods in Jogulamba Gadwal, Wanaparthy, and Nagarkurnool districts. They briefly expanded into Khammam and Nalgonda at the height of their power. Their control was always defined by military presence and the holding of strategic forts.
Caste System: The traditional Hindu caste structure was prevalent, with Brahmins enjoying a high status, as seen in numerous land grants to them (e.g., the 1386 grant to Brahmanas of Pampakshetra).
Position of Women: Women had a mixed status. While royal women were often educated and some, like the courtesan-poet Madhavi, achieved fame, the practices of sati and child marriage were prevalent. However, women were also active in various economic activities like trade, dance, and artisanal work.
Religious Harmony: Despite being a staunchly Hindu kingdom, the empire was pragmatic and tolerant. It employed Muslim soldiers in its cavalry (as initiated by Deva Raya I) and allowed for the construction of mosques. Inscriptions like the 1417 Tellapur inscription show local Hindu artisans receiving gifts from a Bahmani Sultan, indicating cross-cultural interactions.
Slavery: The institution of slavery existed, with slaves being used for domestic work and agricultural labor.
Architecture: The empire developed a distinctive style characterized by:
Monumental Scale: Massive fortifications, grand gopurams (gateway towers), and large temple complexes.
Pillared Halls: Elaborate halls with intricately carved pillars depicting mythological scenes, horses, and yali (mythical creatures).
Innovations: Unique structures like the Kalyanamandapa (marriage hall) and the iconic stone chariot at the Vittala Temple.
Materials: A move from sandstone to more durable granite.
Literature: The empire was a great patron of literature in Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada, and Tamil.
Krishnadevaraya's court hosted the Ashtadiggajas (Eight Elephants), the eight great Telugu poets, including Tenali Ramakrishna.
Krishnadevaraya himself was a scholar and authored the Telugu epic Amuktamalyada.
Renowned scholars like Sayana wrote commentaries on the Vedas.
Music and Dance: Temple-based music and dance traditions, particularly Bharatanatyam, were heavily patronized.
Primary Rivalry: The Deccan Sultanates: The constant state of war with the Bahmani Sultanate(and later the sultanates of Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, etc.) was the defining feature of its foreign policy. This was a struggle for control of the fertile Raichur Doab and the Telangana region, with forts like Panugallu and Pangal changing hands repeatedly.
Other Kingdoms: The empire also fought wars with the Gajapati Kingdom of Odisha(Krishnadevaraya captured territories from them) and exerted influence over other southern kingdoms like Kerala.
Diplomacy with Europeans: The Portuguese arrived on the west coast during this period. The Vijayanagara rulers, especially Krishnadevaraya, engaged with them strategically to purchase high-quality horses and firearms and to secure naval support against the Deccan Sultans.
Architectural Marvels: The ruins of Hampi are a testament to its architectural genius and are a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Cultural Synthesis: It fostered a unique Deccani culture that blended South Indian traditions with influences from the north and beyond.
Administrative Model: The Nayankara system influenced the administration of successor states like the Nayak kingdoms of Tamil Nadu.
Dating: Inscriptions use various calendar eras, most commonly the Saka era. The provided dates (e.g., Saka 1319 for 1397 AD, Saka 1438 for 1516 AD) are crucial for accurately dating events and reigns.
Key Examples from Data:
1386 Copper Plate (Harihara II): Shows royal patronage to Brahmins.
1397 Kaleshwaram Inscription: Records Prince Deva's military campaign in Telangana.
1417 Tellapur Inscription: Evidence of local-level interaction with rival powers.
1516 Nelakondapalli Inscription: Proves Krishnadevaraya's conquest of the Khammam region.
Direct Successor in Telangana: The Qutb Shahi Sultanate of Golconda (1518-1687) absorbed all of the Vijayanagara territories in Telangana.
Major Nayak Kingdoms: Several former Amaranayakas declared independence and founded their own kingdoms:
The Madurai Nayak Dynasty (c. 1529–1736)
The Thanjavur Nayak Dynasty (c. 1532–1673)
The Gingee Nayak Dynasty (c. 1509–1649)
The Aravidu Dynasty: The ruling family continued to claim the title of "Vijayanagara Emperor" but ruled a much-reduced kingdom from bases like Penukonda and Chandragiri until the mid-17th century.
Founders : Harihara I and Bukka Raya I of the Sangama dynasty
Capital : Vijayanagar (modern Hospet, Bellary district, Hampi, Karnataka.)
Languages : Sanskrit, Kannada and Telugu
Religion : Hinduism
1. Origins and Rise
The founders, Harihara and Bukka, had previously served the Kakatiya and Kampili kingdoms. After Kampili fell to the Delhi Sultanate in 1327, the brothers were captured, taken to Delhi, and converted to Islam. They were sent back as governors for the Sultanate but, under the influence of the sage Madhavacarya (Vidyaranya), they reconverted to Hinduism and proclaimed independence. By 1336, Harihara I established his new capital south of the Tungabhadra River, initiating a dynasty that would last for three centuries.
The empire was ruled by four successive dynasties:
Sangama Dynasty (1336 – 1485)
Saluva Dynasty (1485 – 1505)
Tuluva Dynasty (1505 – 1570)
Aravidu Dynasty (1570 – 1646)
Vijayanagara Rule in Telangana (c. 1360 – 1551 CE)
For over two centuries, from approximately 1360 CE to the decisive Battle of Talikota in 1565 CE, the southwestern region of modern-day Telangana was a vital and contested frontier of the Vijayanagara Empire. Unlike other parts of their domain, control here was never absolute or peaceful. Instead, it was characterized by a prolonged military struggle against the successive Deccan Sultanates—first the Bahmanis and later the Qutb Shahis of Golconda.The empire's power was projected most consistently and intensely in three core districts: Wanaparthy, Nagarkurnool, and Jogulamba Gadwal. This area, rich with strategic forts and fertile land, became the primary theater for the epic clash between the Hindu kingdom of the south and the Islamic sultanates of the Deccan.
The Nature of Rule: A Military Frontier
Vijayanagara's administration in these districts was fundamentally military and feudal. Rule was not exercised through dense civilian bureaucracy but through a network of powerful commanders and loyal chieftains.Fort-Based Control: Power was anchored in strategic forts like Pangal (in Wanaparthy) and Panugallu (in Nagarkurnool). These strongholds served as military garrisons, administrative centers, and symbols of authority. The frequent mention of these forts "changing hands" in inscriptions highlights their critical importance.
The Nayankara System: The empire appointed military governors (Amaranayakas or Dandanayakas) to oversee these territories. These governors, such as Kondamarusayya in Nelakondapalli or the officials named in the Alampur inscriptions, were granted land (amaram) in return for maintaining troops and defending the frontier. They collected revenue and administered justice, acting as the de facto rulers on behalf of the Vijayanagara emperor.
A Contested Landscape: Control was fluid. The fortunes of war would push the frontier north or south. Periods of strong emperors like Deva Raya II or Krishnadevaraya saw firm control and expansion. During the reigns of weaker rulers, the Sultanates would reclaim territory. This constant state of flux defined life in this borderland.
The Three Core Districts: Strategic Strongholds
The empire's focus on these three districts was due to their strategic and economic value:Wanaparthy District: The key to this district was the formidable Pangal Fort. Inscriptions from 1397 CE and 1424 CE testify to its enduring importance. Controlling Pangal meant commanding the routes into the heart of the Deccan and securing the southwestern flank of the empire.
Nagarkurnool District: This district was centered around the Panugallu Fort. The 1397 CE inscription from Pangal celebrating its capture by the Sangama commanders shows it was a primary military objective. Its control was synonymous with dominance in the region.
Jogulamba Gadwal District: This area, with the sacred site of Alampur, was a core administrative and cultural zone. A continuous series of inscriptions from 1464 CE to 1529 CE reveals sustained Vijayanagara administration, temple patronage, and land grants, indicating a deeper and more stable integration into the empire compared to the purely military zones around the forts.
The rule of Vijayanagara in these three core districts of Telangana is a story of power, resilience, and conflict. It was not a story of peaceful integration but of a hard-held military frontier that for 200 years withstood the pressure of rival powers, leaving behind a legacy of heroic inscriptions, ruined forts, and a unique chapter in the history of the Deccan. This era came to an abrupt end with the empire's shattering defeat at Talikota in 1565, after which the entire region was swiftly absorbed by the Qutb Shahi Sultanate of Golconda.
At its absolute height under Krishnadevaraya (c. 1515-1529), the Vijayanagara Empire exercised firm control over Jogulamba Gadwal, Wanaparthy, and Nagarkurnool districts, and briefly expanded its administration into Khammam and parts of Nalgonda.
2. Rulers
Known Nayakas of Telangana under the Vijayanagara Empire
Dviguna-Bukka(Immadi Bukka) - Harihara II (1377-1404 CE)
Panugallu Fort(Nagarkurnool Dist.)
1397 CE Inscription (Pangal) A Sangama prince/commander who successfully conquered the strategically vital Panugallu fort.
Devanarayana - Deva Raya II (1424-1446 CE)
Pangal Fort(Wanaparthy Dist.)
1424 CE Inscription (Pangal) Governor of Pangal Fort. He claimed to have "destroyed the army of Firuz Shah," showing his role as a military defender of the frontier.
Peda Kachappodaya - Mallikarjuna Raya (1446-1468 CE)
Alampur Region (Jogulamba Gadwal Dist.)
1464 & 1468 CE Inscriptions (Alampur) A high-ranking official who, with permission from the emperor and the Srisaila pontiff, granted the village of Sarangapura to a matha (religious institution).
Kondamarusayya - Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529 CE)
Nelakondapalli Region (Khammam Dist.)
1516 CE Inscription (Nelakondapalli) The governor appointed by Krishnadevaraya after his conquest of the region from the Gajapati kingdom. He was responsible for administering this newly acquired territory.
Basavapayya
(Gauradanayankara) Alampur Region(Jogulamba Gadwal Dist.) Krishnadevaraya(1509-1529) 1521 CE Inscription(Alampur) Held the title Amara dandanayaka (a high military rank) over Alampur. He made land grants after the subjugation of Raichur, showing his military and administrative role.
Chinnapeddinayudu
Alampur Region(Jogulamba Gadwal Dist.) Krishnadevaraya
(1509-1529) 1527 CE Inscription (Alampur) A palegar (local chieftain/governor) of Alampur. He made grants to the Navabrahmesvara temple, indicating his authority and piety.
(1509-1529) 1527 CE Inscription (Alampur) A palegar (local chieftain/governor) of Alampur. He made grants to the Navabrahmesvara temple, indicating his authority and piety.
Immadi Medi Naraya - Achyuta Deva Raya (1529 - 1542 CE)
Kosangi Region 1538 CE Inscription
End of Vijayanagar Empire in Telangana : 1543 - 1551 CE
1543 CE : This was a major conflict. A coalition of Sultanates (Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, and Golconda) attacked the Vijayanagara Empire.While Aliya Rama Raya (Vijayanagara's regent) managed to defeat the coalition, the war was likely fought on multiple fronts.
It is highly probable that the Qutb Shahi Sultan of Golconda, Jamshid Quli Qutb Shah (1543-1550), took advantage of the Vijayanagara army being engaged elsewhere to launch a concerted campaign into the Telangana frontier.
During this offensive, key forts like Pangal and the Kosangi region were captured by Golconda forces.The Pangal area was no longer under the control of the Vijayanagara Empire but was now part of a Muslim Sultanate, Qutb Shahi Sultanate of Golconda.
1551 CE : Sayyid Shah Mir Isfahani, son of Sayyad Ahmad Tababai 15th September, 1551 A.D: His Honour (lit. His Refuge), the wielder of authority, Sayyid Shah Mir Isfahani, son of Sayyad Ahmad Tababai (may he be blessed !) rebuilt the embankment of the Pangal tank, which had fallen out of repair through age, and spent money (on this work) from recompense in the next life. The person who worked hard and supervised 2 Sluices : an artificial passage for water fitted with a valve or gate for stopping or regulating flow.103 (the repairs) was Rahmat Ullah, son of Abdul Karim Khwan Shahi (?). The embankment was breached from …… to the boundary of the river Krishna and water flowed from the tank through the breach (of the dyke) to the town of Pangal………. The share of Musalmans from (the lands of) the tank…….. remain
Sangama Dynasty
Harihara I (1336–1356 CE)
Founder of the empire. Established the capital and secured the base by defeating the Hoysala king Ballala III.
Bukka Raya I (1356–1377 CE)
Harihara II (1377–1404 CE)
Expanded the empire. His reign is marked by significant activity in Telangana.
1386 AD: A copper plate inscription praises his proficiency in Shastras taught by Vidyaranya.
28th February 1397 AD (Kaleshwaram): An inscription records that Prince Devaraya, son of Harihara II, performed the tulapurusha (a gold-equal-to-weight gift) during his digvijaya (victorious campaign) in the region, clashing with Velamas who sided with the Bahmani Sultans.
30th December 1397 AD (Pangal, Nagarkurnool): Records the conquest of the fort of Panugalluby Dviguna-Bukka (Immadi Bukka), assisted by his son Ananta.
1386 AD: A copper plate inscription praises his proficiency in Shastras taught by Vidyaranya.
28th February 1397 AD (Kaleshwaram): An inscription records that Prince Devaraya, son of Harihara II, performed the tulapurusha (a gold-equal-to-weight gift) during his digvijaya (victorious campaign) in the region, clashing with Velamas who sided with the Bahmani Sultans.
30th December 1397 AD (Pangal, Nagarkurnool): Records the conquest of the fort of Panugalluby Dviguna-Bukka (Immadi Bukka), assisted by his son Ananta.
Virupaksha Raya (1404–1405 CE)
Bukka Raya II (1405–1406 CE)
Deva Raya I (1406–1422 CE)
Son of Harihara II. Continued campaigns in Telangana.
Vira Vijaya Bukka Raya (1422–1424 CE)
Deva Raya II (1424–1446 CE)
The greatest Sangama ruler.
1424 AD (Pangal): An inscription records the construction of the Mukti-Ramesvara temple by Devanarayana, the governor of Pangal fort, who claimed to have destroyed the army of Bahmani Sultan Firuz Shah.
1424 AD (Pangal): An inscription records the construction of the Mukti-Ramesvara temple by Devanarayana, the governor of Pangal fort, who claimed to have destroyed the army of Bahmani Sultan Firuz Shah.
Mallikarjuna Raya (1446–1468)
Son of Deva Raya II. His reign saw Bahmani pressure increase.
1464 & 1468 AD (Alampur, Jogulamba Gadwal): Inscriptions record grants of the village Sarangapura to the Sarangesvara Matha, approved by the pontiff of Srisaila, indicating continued administrative control over the Alampur region.
1464 & 1468 AD (Alampur, Jogulamba Gadwal): Inscriptions record grants of the village Sarangapura to the Sarangesvara Matha, approved by the pontiff of Srisaila, indicating continued administrative control over the Alampur region.
Virupaksha Raya II (1468–1485 CE)
His reign saw significant losses to the Bahmani Sultanate, including the Konkan coast. His misrule led to rebellions, and he was killed by his son.
Praudha Raya (1485 CE)
A brief, unpopular rule marked by internal strife, leading to the end of the Sangama dynasty.
Saluva Dynasty
Saluva Narasimha (1485–1491 CE)
A powerful general who usurped the throne to save the empire from collapse.
Thimma Bhupala (1491)
Elder son and heir of Saluva Narasimha. Assassinated shortly after his father's death.
Narasimha Raya II / Immadi Narasimha (1491–1505)
A weak ruler controlled by his minister, Narasa Nayaka.
29th February 1504 AD (Wanaparthy): An inscription from his reign exists. He was later assassinated by Narasa Nayaka's son, beginning the Tuluva dynasty.
29th February 1504 AD (Wanaparthy): An inscription from his reign exists. He was later assassinated by Narasa Nayaka's son, beginning the Tuluva dynasty.
Tuluva Dynasty
Vira Narasimha Raya (1505–1509 CE)
Founded the Tuluva dynasty after assassinating Immadi Narasimha.
Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529 CE)
The greatest Vijayanagara emperor; his reign was the empire's golden age. He consolidated power in Telangana.
4th May 1516 AD (Nelakondapalli, Khammam): An inscription records land grants by his governor, Kondamarusayya, evidence of his conquest of the Khammam region from the Gajapati kingdom.
1516 AD: His conquests included Nalgonda, Khammamet, and other places in Telangana.
16th January 1521 AD & 3rd March 1527 AD (Alampur): Inscriptions record grants of villages by his officials (Amara Nayakas) in the Alampur region, confirming firm control after the subjugation of Raichur.
23rd April 1529 AD (Chennipadu, Alampur): Records a gift of a village for the merit of Krishnadevaraya and his minister Timmarasayya.
4th May 1516 AD (Nelakondapalli, Khammam): An inscription records land grants by his governor, Kondamarusayya, evidence of his conquest of the Khammam region from the Gajapati kingdom.
1516 AD: His conquests included Nalgonda, Khammamet, and other places in Telangana.
16th January 1521 AD & 3rd March 1527 AD (Alampur): Inscriptions record grants of villages by his officials (Amara Nayakas) in the Alampur region, confirming firm control after the subjugation of Raichur.
23rd April 1529 AD (Chennipadu, Alampur): Records a gift of a village for the merit of Krishnadevaraya and his minister Timmarasayya.
Achyuta Deva Raya (1529–1542 CE)
Brother of Krishnadevaraya.
2nd November 1538 AD (Kosangi): An inscription records a gift to the God Somesvara by his Amara Nayaka, Immadi Medi Naraya.
2nd November 1538 AD (Kosangi): An inscription records a gift to the God Somesvara by his Amara Nayaka, Immadi Medi Naraya.
Sadasiva Raya (1542–1570 CE)
A puppet ruler; real power was held by Aliya Rama Raya.
1552-1554 AD: Copper plates record grants of villages in Telangana during his reign.
1552-1554 AD: Copper plates record grants of villages in Telangana during his reign.
Aravidu Dynasty
Tirumala Deva Raya (1570–1586 CE)
Founded the Aravidu dynasty after the disastrous Battle of Talikota (1565), which ended Vijayanagara's rule in Telangana.
Venkatapati Raya II (1586–1614 CE): One of the last effective Aravidu rulers.
Polepally, Mahbubnagar: An inscription from his reign records the replacement of a broken pillar in the Ahobala Narasimhasvami temple, indicating a minor late presence or patronage in the region.
Venkatapati Raya II (1586–1614 CE): One of the last effective Aravidu rulers.
Polepally, Mahbubnagar: An inscription from his reign records the replacement of a broken pillar in the Ahobala Narasimhasvami temple, indicating a minor late presence or patronage in the region.
Summary of Vijayanagara Rule in Modern Telangana
Vijayanagara control over Telangana was never permanent or monolithic. It was a contested frontier zone. Their power was strongest in the southwestern districts and fluctuated dramatically based on the military strength of the reigning emperor. Control was exercised through key forts and local governors (Nayakas).Districts with Long-Term, Recurrent Control (c. 1360 – 1565 CE)
These southwestern districts were the core of Vijayanagara's territory in Telangana, frequently contested but often under their influence.
Jogulamba Gadwal District
Key Area: Alampur (a major ancient pilgrimage site).
Period of Control: Intermittent but significant control from the reign of Harihara II (1377-1404)until the Battle of Talikota in 1565.
Evidence:
1464 & 1468 AD Inscriptions: Records grants by King Mallikarjuna Raya in Alampur, approved by the pontiff of Srisaila.
1521, 1527, 1529 AD Inscriptions: Multiple records from the reign of Krishnadevaraya in Alampur, showing firm administrative control through his Amara Nayakas.
Wanaparthy District
Key Area: Pangal Fort.
Period of Control: Fluctuating control from the late 14th century until 1565. It was a strategic fort that changed hands multiple times.
Evidence:
30th December 1397 AD Inscription (Pangal): Records the conquest of Panugallu by Dviguna-Bukka during the reign of Harihara II.
1424 AD Inscription (Pangal): From the reign of Deva Raya II, recording the construction of a temple by the governor of Pangal fort.
1504 AD Inscription (Wanaparthy): From the reign of the Saluva king.
Nagar Kurnool District
Key Area: Panugallu Fort.
Period of Control: Similar to Pangal, it was a contested fort with control fluctuating from the time of Harihara II until 1565.
Evidence:
30th December 1397 AD Inscription (Pangal): Explicitly mentions the conquest of Panugallu.
28th February 1397 AD Inscription (Kaleshwaram): Refers to Prince Deva's campaign in the region against chiefs who sided with the Bahmanis, related to the same conflict.
2. Districts with Brief Control during Imperial Peak (c. 1515 – 1540)
These central Telangana districts were brought under Vijayanagara control only during the peak of its power under Emperor Krishnadevaraya and his successor. This control was short-lived and was lost soon after the emperor's death or after the Battle of Talikota.
Khammam District
Period of Control: Briefly under Vijayanagara rule during the conquests of Krishnadevaraya (c. 1515-1529). Likely lost within a few years after his death or definitively after 1565.
Evidence:
4th May 1516 AD Inscription (Nelakondapalli): This is the crucial evidence. It records land grants by Kondamarusayya, the governor of the region appointed by Krishnadevaraya after his conquest.
Nalgonda District
Period of Control: Also briefly conquered by Krishnadevaraya around 1516 AD. This control was even more tenuous than in Khammam.
Evidence:
Nalgonda (Nalagonda) was among the places captured by Krishnadevaraya during his campaign against the Gajapati kingdom.
The End of Rule
The Battle of Talikota in 1565 was the catastrophic event that ended Vijayanagara's rule in Telangana permanently. The victorious Deccan Sultanates, particularly the Qutb Shahi Sultanate of Golconda, swiftly reclaimed all territories. By c. 1570, any remaining Vijayanagara influence in the region was completely extinguished.
In summary: The Vijayanagara Empire's rule was firmly established for long periods in Jogulamba Gadwal, Wanaparthy, and Nagarkurnool districts. They briefly expanded into Khammam and Nalgonda at the height of their power. Their control was always defined by military presence and the holding of strategic forts.
3. Administration
The Vijayanagara Empire developed a highly organized and decentralized administrative system, often described as feudal in nature. It was designed to manage a vast, multi-lingual, and culturally diverse empire.
Monarchy: The king was the supreme authority, considered a representative of the gods. Succession was generally hereditary, but usurpation by powerful nobles was not uncommon (e.g., the rise of the Saluva and Tuluva dynasties).
The Nayankara System: This was the backbone of the military and civil administration. The king granted land (called Amaram or Nayankara) to military commanders known as Nayakas (or Amaranayakas).
In return, the Nayakas maintained a stipulated number of troops, horses, and equipment for the royal army.
They collected taxes (often land revenue at 1/6th of the produce) from the granted territory, keeping a portion for their expenses and remitting the rest to the central treasury.
This system is evident in Telangana, where officials like Kondamarusayya (in Nelakondapalli) and Basavapayya (in Alampur) acted as governors or Amara Nayakas for the empire.
The Ayagar System: At the village level, administration was carried out by a body of twelve functionaries known as Ayagars. These hereditary officers (like the Reddy or village headman, accountant, etc.) were granted tax-free lands for their services, ensuring local governance and stability.
Ministers and Departments: The king was assisted by a council of ministers (Raja Sabha) for revenue, military, foreign affairs, etc. The empire had a sophisticated bureaucracy, with detailed record-keeping evident in the numerous inscriptions and copper-plate grants (e.g., the 1386 copper plate of Harihara II, the 1552-54 grants of Sadasiva Raya).
Monarchy: The king was the supreme authority, considered a representative of the gods. Succession was generally hereditary, but usurpation by powerful nobles was not uncommon (e.g., the rise of the Saluva and Tuluva dynasties).
The Nayankara System: This was the backbone of the military and civil administration. The king granted land (called Amaram or Nayankara) to military commanders known as Nayakas (or Amaranayakas).
In return, the Nayakas maintained a stipulated number of troops, horses, and equipment for the royal army.
They collected taxes (often land revenue at 1/6th of the produce) from the granted territory, keeping a portion for their expenses and remitting the rest to the central treasury.
This system is evident in Telangana, where officials like Kondamarusayya (in Nelakondapalli) and Basavapayya (in Alampur) acted as governors or Amara Nayakas for the empire.
The Ayagar System: At the village level, administration was carried out by a body of twelve functionaries known as Ayagars. These hereditary officers (like the Reddy or village headman, accountant, etc.) were granted tax-free lands for their services, ensuring local governance and stability.
Ministers and Departments: The king was assisted by a council of ministers (Raja Sabha) for revenue, military, foreign affairs, etc. The empire had a sophisticated bureaucracy, with detailed record-keeping evident in the numerous inscriptions and copper-plate grants (e.g., the 1386 copper plate of Harihara II, the 1552-54 grants of Sadasiva Raya).
4. Economy and Trade
The empire was extraordinarily prosperous, with a diversified economy based on agriculture, industry, and extensive trade.
Agriculture: The foundation of the economy. The empire invested heavily in irrigation projects, building dams, canals, and aqueducts (like the massive dam across the Tungabhadra by Deva Raya I). This supported multiple crops per year, including rice, cotton, and spices.
Industries: Textile production (cotton and silk), mining (diamonds from the Kollur mines, iron, steel), and metallurgy were highly developed. The high-quality Vijayanagara steel was used for famous Wootz steel swords.
Trade:
Internal Trade: A network of secure roads connected the capital to ports and inland towns. The capital city of Vijayanagara was a major center of commerce, with markets described by foreign travelers as bustling with activity.
Foreign Trade: The empire had extensive trade links with Persia, Arabia, Portugal, China, and Southeast Asia. Key exports included spices (pepper, cardamom), textiles, indigo, and diamonds. Imports consisted of horses (crucial for the cavalry), luxury goods, silks, and precious metals.
Ports: Important port cities like Goa, Bhatkal, and Calicut (under its influence) facilitated this trade. The empire even had a dedicated customs department.
Agriculture: The foundation of the economy. The empire invested heavily in irrigation projects, building dams, canals, and aqueducts (like the massive dam across the Tungabhadra by Deva Raya I). This supported multiple crops per year, including rice, cotton, and spices.
Industries: Textile production (cotton and silk), mining (diamonds from the Kollur mines, iron, steel), and metallurgy were highly developed. The high-quality Vijayanagara steel was used for famous Wootz steel swords.
Trade:
Internal Trade: A network of secure roads connected the capital to ports and inland towns. The capital city of Vijayanagara was a major center of commerce, with markets described by foreign travelers as bustling with activity.
Foreign Trade: The empire had extensive trade links with Persia, Arabia, Portugal, China, and Southeast Asia. Key exports included spices (pepper, cardamom), textiles, indigo, and diamonds. Imports consisted of horses (crucial for the cavalry), luxury goods, silks, and precious metals.
Ports: Important port cities like Goa, Bhatkal, and Calicut (under its influence) facilitated this trade. The empire even had a dedicated customs department.
5. Society
Vijayanagara society was complex and reflected the empire's Hindu identity while accommodating diverse communities.Caste System: The traditional Hindu caste structure was prevalent, with Brahmins enjoying a high status, as seen in numerous land grants to them (e.g., the 1386 grant to Brahmanas of Pampakshetra).
Position of Women: Women had a mixed status. While royal women were often educated and some, like the courtesan-poet Madhavi, achieved fame, the practices of sati and child marriage were prevalent. However, women were also active in various economic activities like trade, dance, and artisanal work.
Religious Harmony: Despite being a staunchly Hindu kingdom, the empire was pragmatic and tolerant. It employed Muslim soldiers in its cavalry (as initiated by Deva Raya I) and allowed for the construction of mosques. Inscriptions like the 1417 Tellapur inscription show local Hindu artisans receiving gifts from a Bahmani Sultan, indicating cross-cultural interactions.
Slavery: The institution of slavery existed, with slaves being used for domestic work and agricultural labor.
6. Art and Culture
The Vijayanagara period is considered a golden age of South Indian art and culture, known for its splendid synthesis and grandeur.Architecture: The empire developed a distinctive style characterized by:
Monumental Scale: Massive fortifications, grand gopurams (gateway towers), and large temple complexes.
Pillared Halls: Elaborate halls with intricately carved pillars depicting mythological scenes, horses, and yali (mythical creatures).
Innovations: Unique structures like the Kalyanamandapa (marriage hall) and the iconic stone chariot at the Vittala Temple.
Materials: A move from sandstone to more durable granite.
Literature: The empire was a great patron of literature in Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada, and Tamil.
Krishnadevaraya's court hosted the Ashtadiggajas (Eight Elephants), the eight great Telugu poets, including Tenali Ramakrishna.
Krishnadevaraya himself was a scholar and authored the Telugu epic Amuktamalyada.
Renowned scholars like Sayana wrote commentaries on the Vedas.
Music and Dance: Temple-based music and dance traditions, particularly Bharatanatyam, were heavily patronized.
7. Foreign Relations
The empire's foreign relations were dominated by military conflict and strategic diplomacy.Primary Rivalry: The Deccan Sultanates: The constant state of war with the Bahmani Sultanate(and later the sultanates of Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, etc.) was the defining feature of its foreign policy. This was a struggle for control of the fertile Raichur Doab and the Telangana region, with forts like Panugallu and Pangal changing hands repeatedly.
Other Kingdoms: The empire also fought wars with the Gajapati Kingdom of Odisha(Krishnadevaraya captured territories from them) and exerted influence over other southern kingdoms like Kerala.
Diplomacy with Europeans: The Portuguese arrived on the west coast during this period. The Vijayanagara rulers, especially Krishnadevaraya, engaged with them strategically to purchase high-quality horses and firearms and to secure naval support against the Deccan Sultans.
8. Achievements and Legacy
Hindu Sovereignty: It preserved Hindu political and cultural independence in South India for over three centuries against Islamic Sultanates.Architectural Marvels: The ruins of Hampi are a testament to its architectural genius and are a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Cultural Synthesis: It fostered a unique Deccani culture that blended South Indian traditions with influences from the north and beyond.
Administrative Model: The Nayankara system influenced the administration of successor states like the Nayak kingdoms of Tamil Nadu.
9. Chronology, Dating and Inscriptions
Inscriptions: The primary sources for reconstructing history. They are found on temple walls, pillars, and copper plates, in languages like Sanskrit, Kannada, and Telugu.Dating: Inscriptions use various calendar eras, most commonly the Saka era. The provided dates (e.g., Saka 1319 for 1397 AD, Saka 1438 for 1516 AD) are crucial for accurately dating events and reigns.
Key Examples from Data:
1386 Copper Plate (Harihara II): Shows royal patronage to Brahmins.
1397 Kaleshwaram Inscription: Records Prince Deva's military campaign in Telangana.
1417 Tellapur Inscription: Evidence of local-level interaction with rival powers.
1516 Nelakondapalli Inscription: Proves Krishnadevaraya's conquest of the Khammam region.
10. Successor States/Vassals
After the decisive Battle of Talikota (1565) and the subsequent sack of Vijayanagara, the empire fragmented.Direct Successor in Telangana: The Qutb Shahi Sultanate of Golconda (1518-1687) absorbed all of the Vijayanagara territories in Telangana.
Major Nayak Kingdoms: Several former Amaranayakas declared independence and founded their own kingdoms:
The Madurai Nayak Dynasty (c. 1529–1736)
The Thanjavur Nayak Dynasty (c. 1532–1673)
The Gingee Nayak Dynasty (c. 1509–1649)
The Aravidu Dynasty: The ruling family continued to claim the title of "Vijayanagara Emperor" but ruled a much-reduced kingdom from bases like Penukonda and Chandragiri until the mid-17th century.
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