A Thriving Economic System
The Kakatiya economy was a sophisticated blend of agriculture, trade, and artisanal production. The rulers recognized that the red and sandy soils of Telangana were extremely fertile but required plentiful water supply. They pursued a three‑pronged strategy: reclamation of waste land, granting them as agraharas to temples and Brahmanas, and construction of large networks of irrigation tanks. The Kakatiya period witnessed more dynamic activity in the construction of irrigation works than earlier times.
Maritime Trade & Urban Commerce
The Kakatiyas actively promoted international and domestic trade through significant policy edicts and the organization of merchant guilds. A spectacular growth under King Ganapatideva (1199–1261) opened a new epoch in the trade of Andhra by encouraging sea‑borne trade and renovating the port of Motupalli. The Motupalli inscription (1244 CE) was an abhaya sasana (edict of safety) standardizing levies and assuring safety to foreign traders. Marco Polo referred to this port as Mutfili.
Taxation & Revenue Systems
The Kakatiya tax system was sophisticated, with taxes broadly categorised into land taxes, customs duties, and market levies. Inscriptions mention specific taxes like pullari (grazing tax), gandhi‑sunkam (tax on perfumes), burra‑sunkam (oil tax), and revu‑sunkam (port tax). The Mellacheruvu inscription (1312 CE) lists annual professional levies: merchants paid one mada, weavers 16 sinnas, and shepherds 14 sinnas.
Currency, Weights & Measures
The Kakatiyas standardised land measures, coinage, weights, and measures across their kingdom. The gadyana (gold coin) and ruka (silver coin) were the primary coins. Land was measured using martur, khanduga, and putti. The Penumuli inscription (1314 CE) features sketches of standard cubit measures used for land surveys.
Agrarian Economy & Infrastructure
The state's economic strength was underpinned by massive irrigation projects overseen by the royal family and their Nayakas. Notable projects included Chaundasamudra (1203 CE), Namasamudram (1234 CE), and the famous Pakhal Lake (1243 CE). Land was granted under various terms: sarvamanya (tax‑free), vritti (income shares), and dasabandham (copy‑hold taxed at one‑tenth of produce).
Major Sectors of the Kakatiya Economy
Agriculture
Backbone of the economy. Land was classified into dry (vali‑volamu), wet (niru‑nela), and garden areas (tomta‑bhumi). Rice, sugarcane, millet, and cash crops were cultivated. Massive irrigation tanks like Pakhal, Ramappa, and Ghanpur boosted production.
Maritime Trade
Motupalli was the premier port, linking South India with Southeast Asia and the Middle East. Exports included diamonds, muslins, textiles, spices, and iron weapons. Imports included luxury goods, horses, and metals. The Motupalli edict provided safety and tax relief to foreign merchants.
Merchant Guilds
The Nakaramu and Komati guilds controlled trade in specific commodities. They ensured price stability, facilitated credit, and maintained trade routes. The Nanadesi and Virabananja guilds operated across South India, Ceylon, and East Asia.
Currency & Banking
The gadyana (gold) and ruka (silver) were the primary coins. Ten rukas comprised one mada; ten chinnas equaled one mada. Merchants often acted as bankers. Kakatiya standards were designated by the prefix Kesari.
Artisanal Sector
Craftsmanship in metalwork, jewellery, textiles, and stone carving reached remarkable heights. Crafts included Panchalohadhipatilu (five‑metal workers), Salivaru (weavers), Vaddavaru (stone cutters), Kammarilu (blacksmiths), and Telikivaru (oil crushers). Wootz steel was highly prized.
Taxation System
Taxes were of five categories: land taxes, customs duties, market levies, professional taxes, and grazing taxes. Specific levies included pullari (grazing), gandhi‑sunkam (perfume), burra‑sunkam (oil), and revu‑sunkam (port). Taxation was also in kind for vegetables, fruits, and oils.
Currency, Weights, and Measures
The Kakatiyas, after attaining sovereign power, standardised land measures, coinage, weights, and measures across their kingdom.
Coinage: The gadyana continued from earlier periods. The Kakatiyas issued kesarigadyana (~3.5 gms) and kesari gimnam (fraction). Other coins included the silver ruka and somo, with fractions like kesaripati adduqu (½ ruka) and kesari yisam (1/16 ruka).
Weights: The mada (equivalent to gadyana) and cinnam (fractions) were used to weigh articles like sandal powder. The Lilavati of Bhaskaracharya defines Gadyana as 48 gunjas (rattis).
Land Measures: Martur was widely used for both wet and dry lands; khanduga became the unit for dry land and was also a grain measure equal to putti. A standard pole, the Kesaripatighada, was employed during the Kakatiya period.
Capacity Measures: Mana and adda were used for liquids (oil/ghee) and grains.
Taxation System in Detail
The Kakatiya tax system was sophisticated and well‑organized. Taxes were broadly of five categories: Land Taxes, Customs Duties, Market Levies, Professional Taxes, and Grazing Taxes.
Land Taxes (Ari): The standard land tax, often remitted or assigned as sarvamanya (tax‑free) grants to temples. Land was divided into dry (vali‑volamu), wet (niru‑nela), and garden (tomta‑bhumi) for taxation purposes.
Grazing Tax (Pullari): A levy on animal breeders for grazing sheep, goats, oxen, cows, buffaloes, and other domestic animals in pasture lands and forests. The system was decentralised, with subordinates collecting larger amounts and remitting a fixed sum to the king.
Professional Taxes: Weavers, oil grinders, salt‑makers, toddy tappers, and potters paid for setting up, running, and selling their products. Pannu was the tax on industry. The Velpuru inscription mentions Mudra Sumka (registration fee) and Varusarukas (periodical tax) on oil mills.
Market and Toll Taxes (Sunkas): Included Gandhi‑sunkam (perfumes), Burra‑sunkam (oil), Addavatta‑sunkam (market tolls), Revu‑sunkam (port tax), and Angadi‑mudra‑sunkamu (merchandise stamps).
House Tax (Illari): A simple house tax; merchants and weavers were charged more than shepherds and other villagers.
Tax Exemptions: Lands of Brahmins (Brahmadaya) and lands of Gods (Devadaya) were tax‑free. Donations to temples were exempt from all taxes.
Major Irrigation Works of the Kakatiya Period
The Kakatiya rulers, feudatories, ministers, merchants, and temple institutions invested heavily in irrigation. Tank construction was considered one of the seven eternal merits (sapta santanas). Engineers displayed extraordinary skill in designing massive earthen bunds, sluices, and spillways. Many tanks remain in use today.
Pakhal Lake
Built: 1243 CE
Builder: Malyala Jagadula Mummadie (minister of Ganapatideva)
Location: Near Warangal, Telangana
One of the largest irrigation tanks in South India, with a bund about 13 km long and 15‑20 m high. It irrigates over 30,000 acres today. The inscription at the lake records its construction and maintenance grants.
Ramappa Cheruvu
Built: 12th–13th century
Builder: Recharla Rudra (Kakatiya general)
Location: Near Ramappa Temple, Mulugu district
Closely associated with the UNESCO‑listed Ramappa Temple. The tank’s water supported temple rituals and irrigation. The stone sluices have withstood centuries, and the tank still supports agriculture.
Lakanavaram Lake
Built: 12th–13th century
Builder: Lakana Nayaka (feudatory)
Location: Near Warangal, Telangana
Notable for its cascading system of interconnected reservoirs – a unique hydrological design. The bund is nearly 11 km long with intricate sluice gates.
Rudra Samudra Tank
Built: 1172–73 CE
Builder: Rudradeva (Kakatiya king)
Location: Akunuru, near Warangal
Recorded in the Akunuru inscription. Built by Ekkadis (soldiers) who were exempted from taxes. Constructed alongside the Rudresvara temple, it demonstrates the king’s commitment to agricultural prosperity.
Ghanpur Lake
Built: 13th century
Builder: Kakatiya feudatory
Location: Ghanpur village, near Warangal
Part of a complex of tanks near the Ghanpur group of temples. Crucial for rice cultivation, its sluices and waste weir are still functional. Temples often received donations from tank revenues.
Chaundasamudra
Built: 1203 CE
Builder: Chaunda (minister of Ganapatideva)
Location: Near Warangal
One of the earliest large tanks, accompanied by a temple and a new settlement. It set a precedent for later large‑scale projects, showing the government’s commitment to water security.
Namasamudram
Built: 1234 CE
Builder: A Kakatiya officer
Location: Near Warangal
Built during Ganapatideva’s reign, it was part of a dense irrigation network around the capital, ensuring surplus grain production and supporting a growing population.
Many Other Tanks
Inscriptions mention numerous tanks: Bhadrakali Cheruvu, Sivaru Cheruvu, Mallikarjuna Samudram, and many more. The Kakatiya period witnessed a tank‑building boom, transforming Telangana from a dry region into a granary of the Deccan.
Engineering and Management
Hydraulic Engineering: Tanks featured massive earthen bunds (some >10 km), stone‑lined sluices with precise water‑level control, and well‑designed spillways. Bunds were planted with trees to prevent erosion. Multiple sluice gates distributed water to different channels.
Management: The state, temples, and local communities shared maintenance. Inscriptions record endowments for repairing bunds and sluices. The Karimnagar inscription explicitly lists tank construction among the seven meritorious deeds.
Economic Impact: Tanks dramatically expanded cultivation of high‑yielding rice, sugarcane, cotton, and oilseeds. They also supported fishing and provided drinking water. Surplus production fueled trade, urban growth, and the temple economy.
Suggested Heritage Itinerary
Day 1 – Warangal: Capital & Inscriptions
- Morning: Warangal Fort – inscriptions on market taxes and guilds.
- Afternoon: Warangal Museum – coins (gadyanas) and inscriptions.
- Evening: Thousand Pillar Temple, Hanumakonda – nakaramu inscriptions.
Day 2 – Motupalli: International Port
- Morning: Drive to Motupalli (Guntur district). Visit Veerabhadra Swamy temple for the pillar edict.
- Afternoon: Explore the port area and learn about maritime trade.
- Evening: Return to Vijayawada or continue.
Day 3 – Pakhal Lake & Ramappa
- Morning: Pakhal Lake – walk the massive bund and see the inscription stone.
- Afternoon: Ramappa Temple (UNESCO) and the adjacent Ramappa Cheruvu.
- Evening: Return to Warangal or Hyderabad.
Day 4 – Lakanavaram & Ghanpur
- Morning: Lakanavaram Lake – cascading tank system.
- Afternoon: Ghanpur Lake and the Ghanpur group of temples.
- Evening: Return to Warangal.
Visitor Information – Kakatiya Economic Heritage Sites
Motupalli Port Site
Location: Bapatla taluka, Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh.
Timings: 6 AM – 6 PM (daily). Entry free.
Best season: October – February.
Tip: The Motupalli pillar edict (1244 CE) is engraved on four sides of a pillar in front of the Veerabhadrasvamin temple. A must‑see for medieval maritime trade.
Warangal Fort & Museum
Location: Warangal city, Telangana.
Timings: 6 AM – 6 PM. Entry fee: ₹10–20.
Best season: October – February.
Tip: The Warangal Fort inscriptions (1228 CE) detail market taxes and distinguish native from foreign merchants. The Museum houses Kakatiya coins and inscriptions.
Pakhal Lake
Location: Near Warangal, Telangana.
Timings: Sunrise to sunset. Entry free.
Best season: October – February.
Tip: The Pakhal Lake inscription (1243 CE) records its construction. The lake still irrigates thousands of acres. Walk along the bund to appreciate the engineering.
Ramappa Temple & Lake
Location: Mulugu district, Telangana.
Timings: 6 AM – 6 PM. Entry free (temple).
Best season: October – February.
Tip: Ramappa Temple is a UNESCO site. The adjacent Ramappa Cheruvu is integral to the complex. Inscriptions in the temple mention tank maintenance.
Tips for History Enthusiasts & Travellers
Insider tip: The Motupalli pillar edict (1244 CE) is one of the most significant economic documents from medieval India. Issued by King Ganapatideva, it provided an "edict of safety" (abhaya‑sasana) to foreign merchants, remitted oppressive taxes on shipwrecked goods, and assured safety to traders from all lands. The record mentions the export of diamonds and muslins "as fine as the tissue of spider's web". Walking the bunds of Pakhal and Lakanavaram gives a visceral sense of medieval hydraulics.
Legacy – The Kakatiya Economic System
The Kakatiya economy stands as a testament to the dynasty's vision and administrative capability. From the red and sandy soils of Telangana, they built a thriving agrarian economy supported by an extensive network of irrigation tanks that still irrigate thousands of acres today. They opened their ports to international trade, with Motupalli becoming a vibrant centre of commerce linking South India with Southeast Asia and the Middle East. They developed a sophisticated taxation system that balanced the needs of the state with the welfare of the people, and they standardised currency and measurements across their kingdom. The merchant guilds (Nakaramu) played a crucial role in maintaining trade routes and ensuring price stability. Though the Kakatiya kingdom fell to the Delhi Sultanate in 1323 CE, its economic legacy lived on, influencing the subsequent Reddy and Vijayanagara dynasties. Today, the inscriptions, coins, and irrigation works of the Kakatiyas stand as silent witnesses to the economic genius of this remarkable dynasty.
Frequently Asked Questions
What was the backbone of the Kakatiya economy?
Agriculture, supported by extensive irrigation tanks, reservoirs, and canals.
What was the Motupalli inscription?
An "edict of safety" (1244 CE) by Ganapatideva that remitted taxes on shipwrecked goods and assured safety to foreign traders.
What were the main exports?
Diamonds, muslins, textiles, spices, iron weapons, and Wootz steel.
What was pullari?
A grazing tax on cattle and domestic animals – from pullu (grass) + ari (tax).
How many major irrigation tanks did they build?
Over a hundred are recorded; the most famous include Pakhal, Ramappa, Lakanavaram, Rudra Samudra, Ghanpur, Chaundasamudra, and Namasamudram.
What was the Nakaramu?
A merchant guild trading in arceanuts, betel‑leaves, rice, honey, oils, pepper, mustard, metals, etc.
What coins did they use?
The gadyana (gold, ~3.5 gms) and ruka (silver). Ten rukas = one mada; ten chinnas = one mada.
Where can I see Kakatiya economic inscriptions?
Motupalli, Warangal Fort, Warangal Museum, Thousand Pillar Temple, Karimnagar (Manthani), Pakhal Lake, and various temple sites.
Are the Kakatiya tanks still in use?
Yes – Pakhal, Ramappa, Lakanavaram, and Ghanpur are still functional and irrigate large areas.
Inscriptions from Epigraphia Telanganica
Below is a complete, categorized listing of every inscription discussed in this guide. They are grouped by economic theme for easy reference – no duplication.
Maritime Trade & Urban Commerce
Merchant Guilds (Nakaramu)
Taxation & Revenue Systems
Currency, Weights, and Measures
Agrarian Economy & Irrigation Infrastructure
References & Further Reading
Primary Sources – Epigraphia Telanganica
- Motupalli Pillar Edict (1244 CE) – edict of safety; imports/exports.
- Warangal Fort Inscriptions (1228 CE) – market taxes; native vs. foreign merchants.
- Mellacheruvu Inscription (1312 CE) – professional taxes on merchants, weavers, shepherds.
- Velpuru Inscription (1169 CE) – Mudra Sumka and Varusarukas on oil mills.
- Penumuli Inscription (1314 CE) – sketches of standard cubit measures.
- Karimnagar Inscription – sapta santanas including tank construction.
- Pakhal Lake Inscription (1243 CE) – construction of Pakhal Lake.
- Kazipet Inscription (1090 CE) – nakaramu gift of oil for a lamp.
- Akunuru Inscriptions (1172–73 CE) – Rudra Samudra tank and tax exemptions.
Secondary Sources
- Wikipedia – Kakatiya Dynasty
- Wikipedia – Ganapatideva
- Sastry, P.V. Parabrahma. The Kakatiyas. Hyderabad, 1978.
- Somasekhara Sarma, M. A Forgotten Chapter of Andhra History. 1945.
- Epigraphia Telanganica, Vols. 1–4.
- Panduranga Rao, M. Kakatiyas: The Age of Glory.
- Talbot, Cynthia. Precolonial India in Practice. OUP, 2001.