Kakatiya Economy

The Kakatiya rulers recognized that the red and sandy soils of Telangana were extremely fertile but required plentiful water supply. They pursued a three‑pronged strategy: reclamation of waste land, granting them as agraharas to temples and Brahmanas, and construction of large networks of irrigation tanks. The Kakatiya period witnessed more dynamic activity in the construction of irrigation works than earlier times.

Land was classified into dry (vali‑volamu), wet (niru‑nela), and garden areas (tomta‑bhumi). Rice, sugarcane, millet, and cash crops were cultivated. Massive irrigation tanks like Pakhal, Ramappa, and Ghanpur boosted production. The state, temples, and local communities shared maintenance responsibilities. Inscriptions record endowments for repairing bunds and sluices. The Karimnagar inscription explicitly lists tank construction among the seven meritorious deeds (sapta santanas).

The Kakatiya rulers, feudatories, ministers, merchants, and temple institutions invested heavily in irrigation. Engineers displayed extraordinary skill in designing massive earthen bunds, sluices, and spillways. Many tanks remain in use today.

• Pakhal Lake (1243 CE): Built by Malyala Jagadula Mummadie (minister of Ganapatideva) near Warangal. One of the largest irrigation tanks in South India, with a bund about 13 km long and 15‑20 m high. It irrigates over 30,000 acres today. The inscription at the lake records its construction and maintenance grants.
• Ramappa Cheruvu (13th c. CE): Built by Recharla Rudra (Kakatiya general) near the UNESCO-listed Ramappa Temple in Mulugu district. The tank's water supported temple rituals and irrigation. The stone sluices have withstood centuries.
• Lakanavaram Lake (12th–13th c. CE): Built by Lakana Nayaka (feudatory) near Warangal. Notable for its cascading system of interconnected reservoirs – a unique hydrological design. The bund is nearly 11 km long with intricate sluice gates.
• Rudra Samudra Tank (1172–73 CE): Built by Rudradeva at Akunuru, near Warangal. Recorded in the Akunuru inscription, built by Ekkadis (soldiers) who were exempted from taxes.
• Ghanpur Lake (13th c. CE): Built by a Kakatiya feudatory near Warangal. Part of a complex of tanks near the Ghanpur group of temples. Crucial for rice cultivation.
• Chaundasamudra (1203 CE): Built by Chaunda (minister of Ganapatideva) near Warangal. One of the earliest large tanks, accompanied by a temple and a new settlement.
• Namasamudram (1234 CE): Built by a Kakatiya officer during Ganapatideva's reign, part of a dense irrigation network around the capital.

The Kakatiyas actively promoted international and domestic trade through significant policy edicts and the organization of merchant guilds. A spectacular growth under King Ganapatideva (1199–1261) opened a new epoch in the trade of Andhra by encouraging sea‑borne trade and renovating the port of Motupalli.

• Motupalli Port: The premier port linking South India with Southeast Asia and the Middle East. Marco Polo referred to this port as Mutfili and visited it around 1290 CE.
• Motupalli Inscription (1244 CE): Issued by King Ganapatideva as an abhaya sasana (edict of safety), it standardized levies, remitted oppressive taxes on shipwrecked goods, and assured safety to foreign traders from all lands.
• Exports: Included diamonds, muslins "as fine as the tissue of spider's web", textiles, spices, iron weapons, and Wootz steel.
• Imports: Included elephants, horses, gold, gems, corals, copper, zinc, lead, and silk.

The Nakaramu (merchant assembly) and Komati guilds controlled trade in specific commodities. They ensured price stability, facilitated credit, and maintained trade routes. The Nanadesi and Virabananja guilds operated across South India, Ceylon, and East Asia.

• Kazipet Inscription (c. 1090 CE): The nakaramu of Annakonda gifted one mana of oil daily for a perpetual lamp.
• Nagunur Inscription (1228 CE): Merchant assembly agreed to a tax of two visas on every sari sold.
• Warangal Inscription (1228 CE): The nagaram of traders in five metals, perfumes, and money exchange granted levies for temple maintenance.
• Various other inscriptions: Show the Nakaramu trading in arceanuts, betel‑leaves, rice, honey, oils, pepper, mustard, metals, making collective gifts from sales.

The Kakatiya tax system was sophisticated, with taxes broadly categorised into land taxes, customs duties, market levies, professional taxes, and grazing taxes. Inscriptions mention specific taxes that provide detailed insights into the economic structure.

• Mellacheruvu Inscription (1312 CE): Lists annual professional levies – merchants paid one mada, weavers 16 sinnas, and shepherds 14 sinnas annually.
• Velpuru Inscription (1169 CE): Gift to Rameshwara temple of Mudra Sumka (registration fee) and Varusarukas (periodical tax) on oil mills.
• Pamapur Inscription (1278 CE): Gandhi‑sunkam – tax on perfumes.
• Peddaganjam Inscription (1270 CE): Addavatta‑sunkam – market or revenue tolls.
• Boppudi Inscription: Revu‑sunkam – port or ferry tax.
• Kocherlakota Inscription: Angadi‑mudra‑sunkamu – tax on merchandise stamps.
• Aluvalapadu & Yelgedu Inscriptions: Remissions of pullari (grazing tax) for religious endowments.
• House Tax (Illari): A simple house tax; merchants and weavers were charged more than shepherds and other villagers.
• Tax Exemptions: Lands of Brahmins (Brahmadaya) and lands of Gods (Devadaya) were tax‑free. Donations to temples were exempt from all taxes.

The Kakatiyas, after attaining sovereign power, standardised land measures, coinage, weights, and measures across their kingdom.

• Coinage: The gadyana (gold, ~3.5 gms) and ruka (silver) were the primary coins. Ten rukas comprised one mada; ten chinnas equaled one mada. Kakatiya standards were designated by the prefix Kesari – kesarigadyana, kesari gimnam (fraction), kesaripati adduqu (½ ruka), and kesari yisam (1/16 ruka).
• Weights: The mada (equivalent to gadyana) and cinnam (fractions) were used to weigh articles like sandal powder. The Lilavati of Bhaskaracharya defines Gadyana as 48 gunjas (rattis).
• Land Measures: Martur was widely used for both wet and dry lands; khanduga became the unit for dry land and was also a grain measure equal to putti. A standard pole, the Kesaripatighada, was employed during the Kakatiya period.
• Penumuli Inscription (1314 CE): Features sketches of standard cubit measures used for land surveys in 22 villages; rod of 32 jenas at Alampur.
• Capacity Measures: Mana and adda were used for liquids (oil/ghee) and grains.

Craftsmanship in metalwork, jewellery, textiles, and stone carving reached remarkable heights during the Kakatiya period.

• Panchalohadhipatilu: Five‑metal workers who created intricate metal objects.
• Salivaru: Weavers who produced fine textiles and muslins.
• Vaddavaru: Stone cutters who built the magnificent Kakatiya temples.
• Kammarilu: Blacksmiths who produced Wootz steel – highly prized across the world.
• Telikivaru: Oil crushers who produced oils for cooking, lighting, and rituals.
• Textile production: Muslins "as fine as the tissue of spider's web" were exported via Motupalli.
• Diamond mining: The region was famous for diamond mines, with Golconda diamonds being exported internationally.

The epigraphical evidence provides detailed insights into the Kakatiya economy. Below is a selected list of key inscriptions and their significance.

• c. 1000 CE: Emergence of the Kakatiya dynasty as feudal chiefs under the Western Chalukyas.
• 1090 CE: Kazipet inscription records nakaramu gift of oil for a lamp.
• 1169 CE: Velpuru inscription documents Mudra Sumka and Varusarukas on oil mills.
• 1172–73 CE: Akunuru inscriptions record Rudra Samudra tank construction and tax exemptions.
• 1203 CE: Construction of Chaundasamudra tank by Chaunda, minister of Ganapatideva.
• 1228 CE: Warangal Fort inscriptions detail market taxes and distinguish native from foreign merchants.
• 1234 CE: Construction of Namasamudram tank during Ganapatideva's reign.
• 1243 CE: Construction of Pakhal Lake by Malyala Jagadula Mummadie.
• 1244 CE: Motupalli pillar edict issued by Ganapatideva – edict of safety for foreign merchants.
• 1262 CE: Accession of Rudramadevi as queen regnant.
• 1270 CE: Peddaganjam inscription records Addavatta‑sunkam (market tolls).
• 1278 CE: Pamapur inscription records Gandhi‑sunkam (tax on perfumes).
• 1289 CE: Accession of Prataparudra II, the last great Kakatiya monarch.
• 1290 CE: Marco Polo visits Motupalli port (Mutfili) and remarks on the flourishing trade.
• 1312 CE: Mellacheruvu inscription records professional taxes on merchants, weavers, and shepherds.
• 1314 CE: Penumuli inscription features sketches of standard cubit measures.
• 1323 CE: Fall of the Kakatiya kingdom to the Delhi Sultanate.

The Kakatiya economy stands as a testament to the dynasty's vision and administrative capability. From the red and sandy soils of Telangana, they built a thriving agrarian economy supported by an extensive network of irrigation tanks that still irrigate thousands of acres today. They opened their ports to international trade, with Motupalli becoming a vibrant centre of commerce linking South India with Southeast Asia and the Middle East. They developed a sophisticated taxation system that balanced the needs of the state with the welfare of the people, and they standardised currency and measurements across their kingdom. The merchant guilds (Nakaramu) played a crucial role in maintaining trade routes and ensuring price stability.

Though the Kakatiya kingdom fell to the Delhi Sultanate in 1323 CE, its economic legacy lived on, influencing the subsequent Reddy and Vijayanagara dynasties. Today, the inscriptions, coins, and irrigation works of the Kakatiyas stand as silent witnesses to the economic genius of this remarkable dynasty.